Assessing the vulnerability of forest ecosystems in the climate change context is a challenging task as the mechanisms that determine this vulnerability cannot be directly observed. Based on the ecological interrelationships between forests and climate, the present review focused on providing current information about vulnerability assessments of cork oak (Quercus suber L.) forests in the Mediterranean basin, especially, in the Kroumirie region (northwest Tunisia), currently under historic extreme drought conditions. From comparing recent findings in this region, we synthesized data on cork oak decline and mortality collected during the historic drought years 1988–1995 period. Climate change impacts cork forest decline, with special interest shown in elevated temperatures and drought; cork oak forest regeneration, and the adaptation of the Kroumirie forest to climate change, are reviewed herein. The studied region has been influenced largely by frequent prolonged drought periods, especially from 1988 to 1995. Droughts were found to consistently have a more detrimental impact on the growth and mortality rates of cork oak populations. Cork oak mortality was recorded for up to 63,622 trees. In the future, more research studies and observational data will be needed, which could represent an important key to understand ecosystem processes, and to facilitate the development of better models that project climate change impacts and vulnerability. The study is useful for researchers and forestry decision makers to develop the appropriate strategies to restore and protect ecosystems, and to help anticipate potential future droughts and climate change.

Understanding how tree species respond to drought in their natural environment is needed to predict forest adaptation and management practices under global environmental changes. This study was carried out to determine and compare physiological and biochemical responses to variations in environmental conditions during summer drought of mixed natural stands of Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe and Pinus brutia Ten. Midday xylem water potential (Ψ_md), water relations, photosynthetic pigments, total soluble sugar and proline contents were investigated during the growing season. Ψ_md followed a similar seasonal trend in both species but P. nigra subsp. pallasiana had higher Ψ_md than P. brutia. The Ψ_md gradually decreased from June, reached its lowest value in August, and then increased again. Gradual decreases in the osmotic potential at turgor loss point (Ψ_пTLP) were observed during the summer. Generally, Ψ_пTLP was lower in P. brutia. Total soluble sugars decreased from April to June for P. brutia, then increased and stayed relatively constant August to October. Similar changes were found at lower values in P. nigra subsp. pallasiana. Prolin accumulation and photosynthetic pigments were higher in P. brutia. The results indicate that physiological and biochemical responses of both species against changing environmental conditions were in different degrees but followed similar trends. P. nigra subsp. pallasiana is more sensitive to summer drought than P. brutia in their natural environment.

During a forest fire, plants are affected by high temperatures causing stress. At the time of burning, it is difficult to record temperature changes in tree crowns and the associated effects on photosynthesis. This paper presents the results of modelling a high-temperature effect simulating a convective flow from a ground fire. Evaluation of the response was carried out by the parameters of rapid fluorescence (Fv/Fm, ETR), the state of the pigment complex, and the relative water content in the needles. To characterize the degree of heat endurance and short-term effects concerning thermal damage, saplings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were used at different times during the growing season (June, July, August, September). Experimental heating at 55 °C lasted for 5 and 10 min. There were different levels of heat resistance by the needles. Data in June show that heating of the saplings significantly suppressed photosynthesis. In July, August, and September, the photochemical quantum yield (Fv/Fm) was restored to 75% and 60% from the initial level after 5- and 10-min heating, respectively. The electron transport rate (ETR) for saplings in September was restored to their initial level within 3 days after a short heat exposure. Restoration of the photosynthetic activity in needles was observed after a 5-min impact, but by the end of the study period, restoration had not reached control values. A longer heating of 10 min resulted in an irreversible suppression of photosynthesis and destruction of the photosynthetic apparatus, as evidenced by the decrease in the number of photosynthetic pigments.

In this study, we investigated the effects of environmental factors on plant phenolic variability, seasonal dynamics of total phenolic content (TP), extractable condensed tannins (ECT), protein-bound condensed tannins (PBCT), fiber-bound condensed tannins (FBCT), total condensed tannins (TCT), protein precipitation capacity (PPC) and nutrient content in the branchlets and fine roots of Casuarina equisetifolia. TP and TCT concentrations in branchlets were lowest in the spring, then increased in summer and autumn, similar to the seasonal dynamics in air temperature. TP and TCT concentrations in fine roots were highest in summer, coinciding with heavy precipitation. In general, TP and TCT concentrations were higher in branchlets than in fine roots. No significant difference was found in C concentration among various seasons for either branchlets or fine roots. Branchlets had significantly higher N and P concentrations than fine roots in most seasons. The C/N and N/P ratios in branchlets were significantly lower than in fine roots in all seasons, except summer. The relationship between branchlets and fine roots was significant for C, P and FBCT, but no significant relationships were found for N, TP, ECT, PBCT and TCT. Additionally, TP and TCT content were each significantly correlated with PPC in branchlets and in fine roots. Both TP/N and TCT/N ratios were highest in the autumn for the branchlets and in the summer for fine roots. The results indicate that high temperatures lead to increased tannin production in branchlets, but that the tannin content in fine roots is mainly affected by precipitation. Tannin content was greater in branchlets than in fine roots, which may indicate that selective pressure is greater on branchlets than on fine roots.

The explicit purpose of this study was to characterize climate and vegetation along the western slope of the El Sira Mountains (Peru) and evaluate radial tree growth in response to seasonal rainfall anomalies. From May 2011 until September 2015, we monitored radial stem growth of 67 trees using point dendrometers and measured climate within five sites along an altitudinal gradient. The transect extends from lowland terra firme forests, over submontane forests, late and mid successional montane cloud forests up to exposed elfin forests. Monthly rainfall estimates by the TRMM PR satellite (product 3B42) were highly correlated with our rain gauge observations but underestimate rainfall at high altitudes. Different intra-annual tree growth patterns could be identified within each elevational forest type, showing species with strictly seasonal growth, continuous growth or alternating growth patterns independent of the seasons. Stem growth at each site was generally larger during rainy seasons, except for the elfin forest. The rainy season from October 2013 to March 2014 was extraordinarily dry, with only 73% of long-term mean precipitation received, which resulted in reduced radial growth, again with the exception of the elfin forest. This indicates that montane tropical rain forests may suffer from prolonged droughts, while exposed ridges with elfin forests still receive plenty of precipitation and benefit from receiving more solar radiation for photosynthesis.

To assist conservationists and policymakers in managing and protecting forests in Beijing from the effects of climate change, this study predicts changes for 2012–2112 in habitable areas of three tree species—Betula platyphylla, Quercus palustris, Platycladus orientalis, plus other mixed broadleaf species—in Beijing using a classification and regression tree niche model under the International Panel on Climate Change’s A2 and B2 emissions scenarios (SRES). The results show that climate change will increase annual average temperatures in the Beijing area by 2.0–4.7 °C, and annual precipitation by 4.7–8.5 mm, depending on the emissions scenario used. These changes result in shifts in the range of each of the species. New suitable areas for distributions of B. platyphylla and Q. palustris will decrease in the future. The model points to significant shifts in the distributions of these species, withdrawing from their current ranges and pushing southward towards central Beijing. Most of the ranges decline during the initial 2012–2040 period before shifting southward and ending up larger overall at the end of the 88-year period. The mixed broadleaf forests expand their ranges significantly. The P. orientalis forests, on the other hand, expand their range marginally. The results indicate that climate change and its effects will accelerate significantly in Beijing over the next 88 years. Water stress is likely to be a major limiting factor on the distribution of forests and the most important factor affecting migration of species into and out of existing nature reserves. There is a potential for the extinction of some species. Therefore, long-term vegetation monitoring and warning systems will be needed to protect local species from habitat loss and genetic swamping of native species by hybrids.

Analysis of the change in forest cover is important to determine stand dynamics and the processes involved in disturbance and recovery. Forests of the core zone of the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve were studied using photo interpretation techniques, considering biennial changes between 1999 and 2013 and changes over the whole period of study 1999–2013. Error matrices were elaborated to determine the processes of change involved in both recovery and disturbance. The biennial changes for the whole period amounted to 2274 ha; 343 ha accounted as degraded in more than one biennial period. The total changes in forest cover between 1999 and 2013 involved 4902 ha, out of which, 2912 ha were affected by disturbance, and 1990 ha were recovered. For density and 2013 vegetation cover maps, the overall accuracy was 95.6% and 90.2%, respectively. By combining both maps, gradual processes were revealed that were not evident in separate analyses. This methodology is useful for the management and conservation of natural protected areas.

For analyzing the effects of forest litter and slope aspect on soil properties eight soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–10 cm near (i.e., beneath the crown) and away from (i.e., not influenced by crown) five Persian turpentine trees each on a north and a south slope at the same elevation in a Zagros forest, Iran. The litter beneath tree crowns and slope exposure were found to have significant interactive effects on C, N, P, K, and electrical conductivity of the soils, however, Ca, Mg and the soil pH were not significantly influenced by these factors. The soil beneath the crowns was enriched in cations compared to more distal positions. Generally, Persian turpentine trees have positive impacts on soil properties in the forest. Degrading or killing these trees by sap extraction, extreme grazing, cutting, fire and expansion of agriculture will lead to significant losses in soil fertility and increases in soil erosion.

In this floristic study from sea level to timberline in the westernmost Hyrcanian forests, 1302 plant specimens within 166 relevés were identified. There were 649 taxa of vascular plants belonging to 349 genera and 95 families. Poaceae had the most taxa (61), followed by Asteraceae (59), and Rosaceae (53). Genera with the greatest species richness included Alchemilla and Carex, each with 16, Veronica with 15, and Poa, Geranium and Rumex each with 9. Hemicryptophytes (43.3%) were the dominant life form. Chorological analysis showed 31.2% Euro-Siberian elements. Of the total number of species, 10.9% (70) were endemic or subendemic to Iran. Species diversity indices at different altitudes were also compared.

Evaluating the influences of fine-scale habitat heterogeneity on the composition, diversity, structure and functioning of forests is critical to understand how tropical forests will respond to climate change and devise forest management strategies that will enhance biodiversity conservation and aboveground biomass stock. Here, we hypothesized that topographic and soil factors determine fine-scale habitat differentiation, which in turn shape community composition, species richness, structure and aboveground biomass at the local scale in tropical forests. To test this hypothesis, we selected two areas (each 100 × 100 m) with contrasting fine-scale topographic conditions where all trees, palms and lianas with a diameter at breast height ≥ 10 cm were tagged and identified to species. In each selected area, 100 subplots of 10 × 10 m were established. We mainly found that higher topographic variability caused higher habitat differentiation with changes in species composition and community structure, but did not change species richness. Our habitat-scale analyses indicated that, in the less heterogeneous area, the distribution of species was more uniform along a fine-scale topographical gradient with no variation in convexity, which induced changes in structure and aboveground biomass, but not in species richness. The nonsignificant relationship between species richness and aboveground biomass may be attributable to species redundancy or functional dominance. This study suggests that environmental filtering is a fundamental process for shaping community assembly and forest functioning along a local topographical gradient in tropical forests.

Litter decomposition and ecological stoichiometry of nutrient release is an important part of material cycling and energy flow in forest ecosystems. In a study of the ecological stoichiometry and nutrient release during litter decomposition in a pine–oak forest ecosystem of the Grain to Green Program (GTGP) area of northern China, a typical pine and oak species (PDS: Pinus densiflora Sieb., QAC: Quercus acutissima Carr.) were selected in the Taiyi Mountain study area. The ecological stoichiometry characteristics of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and litter decomposition dynamics were studied by field sampling and quantitative analyses. The results showed the following. (1) The decomposition dynamics of both litters was slow-fast-slow. The most important climatic factor affecting the litter decomposition rate from May to October was precipitation and temperature from November to April of the following year. (2) Throughout the 300-day study, in both litters, C of the two litters was released, N first accumulated and was then released, and P exhibited a release-accumulate-release pattern. (3) C:P was significantly higher than C:N and N:P (p < 0.05); the C:N of PSD litter was higher than that of QAC (p < 0.05), but the N:P of QAC litter was higher than that of PSD litter (p < 0.05). The C:N of both litters was very high in the study area, indicating that the nutrient release ability during litter decomposition in the two typical pine–oak forest ecosystems was relatively weak; therefore, more attention should be paid to nitrogen-fixing species and mixed forests in the GTGP area of northern China.

A total of 141 quadrats were sampled using stratified random sampling to study forest, environment and human interactions along an elevation gradient 1800 to 3665 m at the remote Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Eight forest types were identified, including Laurel-Oak to Rhododendron to Blue pine, comprising 191 species including 60 useful from 166 genera and 87 families. The environmental variables elevation, slope, and temperature were significant (p < 0.001) in determining the composition and distribution of forest types. Records of large numbers of useful plants along with diverse forest and vegetation types suggest a strong association between the culture of local villages and nature conservation. Due to changes in climate, socio-culture and land-use, forest degradation is expected to accelerate, thus forcing government and indigenous community forest management measures to acknowledge human, cultural and environmental variables for sustainable forest management.

Fire has been used to prepare land during tree plantation establishment for many years but uncertainty about how ecosystems respond to prescribed burning makes it difficult to predict the effects of fire on soil nutrients. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of burning accumulated forest residues (slash) on soil chemical properties and how trees respond. We analyzed 40 burned and unburned sites and compared growth of Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden between sites. Soil pH increased by 39% after fire, suggesting reduced soil acidity and increased liming. Total nitrogen increased by 100%; other nutrients (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and K⁺) also increased. Increase in nutrients had a significant effect on the growth of E. grandis; larger and taller trees were associated more with burned than unburned sites. This study provides evidence that burning accumulated slash during land preparation prior to plantation establishment alters soil nutrient status and enhances the growth of E. grandis.

Fire and pre- or post-fire management practices shape the distribution and richness of plant species. Here, the effects of pre- and post-fire management on vegetation recovery were studied at different times, up to 18 months after a wildfire. Two months after a 2015 wildfire, 18 study plots were established (three 4-m² plots for each treatment), vegetation regrowth was monitored and vegetal species richness (S), evenness (I _T), density (D), diversity (H′) and maximum diversity (HMax) after 2, 10 and 18 months. The treatments were (1) control, unaffected by 2015 wildfire; (2) no treatment (NT), burned in 2015 wildfire and not managed; (3) managed in 2005 and burned in 2015 (M05B); (4) managed in 2015, 2 months before wildfire (M15B); (5) cut and manual removal after the 2015 wildfire (CR); (6) cut and no trunk removal randomly deposited on topsoil after the 2015 wildfire (CL). All the treatments were carried out in a Pinus halepensis Miller forest. At 10 and 18 months after the wildfire, vegetation recovery was greater in NT, CR and CL plots than in M05B and M15B the plots. By 18 months after the wildfire, Brachypodium retusum (Pers.) P. Beauv. and Rosmarinus officinalis L. were still dominant, especially in M15B, corroborating the belief that pre-fire treatment reduced ecosystem resilience and vegetal recovery compared to the NT and post-fire managed plots. Richness was significantly lower 10 months after wildfire in control plots, and I _T was significantly higher in that inventory than previously in M15B. Eighteen months after the wildfire, H′ was significantly lower in M15B. Ten months post-wildfire, HMax was significantly lower in the control plots. Eighteen months after the wildfire, HMax, was significantly higher in CR, CL and M05B than in the control and M15B plots. Overall, pre-fire management was detrimental to post-fire vegetation recovery, while manual post-fire management proved beneficial.

Individual tree models (ITMs) are classified as growth and production models for projecting current and future forest stands. ITMs are more complex than other growth and production models, show a higher level of detail and, consequently, produce a better modeling resolution. However, the accuracy and efficiency of ITMs have not been properly assessed to date. In this study, we estimated the growth in height, diameter, and individual tree volume of a Eucalyptus urophylla plantation by applying an ITM. We used a continuing forest inventory dataset in which 1554 individual trees within 29 permanent plots were measured in the field over a 6-year period (24 to 72 months). Each individual tree volume was estimated for future tree age. To achieve this, we adjusted the model to predict the height and diameter growth, and the probability of mortality as a function of the competition index. The ITM accuracy was assessed based on the analysis of variance results and, subsequently, the multiple mean comparison test at the 5% significance level. The tree volumes predicted by the ITM for the forest stand aged 72 months, beginning at ages 24, 36, 48, and 60 months, were compared to the field measured tree volume acquired from the 72-month forest inventory that was used as the reference age. Estimated and observed tree volumes were similar when the estimation was based on the 48-month forest plots. These results might help to reduce financial costs of forest inventory because the ITM produces accurate future predictions of forest stand stocks. Our estimated ITM for Eucalyptus plantations using measurement intervals up to 2 years is recommended because it significantly reduced the projected volume discrepancy compared to the field measurements.

A general regression neural network model, combined with an interative algorithm (GRNNI) using sparsely distributed samples and auxiliary environmental variables was proposed to predict both spatial distribution and variability of soil organic matter (SOM) in a bamboo forest. The auxiliary environmental variables were: elevation, slope, mean annual temperature, mean annual precipitation, and normalized difference vegetation index. The prediction accuracy of this model was assessed via three accuracy indices, mean error (ME), mean absolute error (MAE), and root mean squared error (RMSE) for validation in sampling sites. Both the prediction accuracy and reliability of this model were compared to those of regression kriging (RK) and ordinary kriging (OK). The results show that the prediction accuracy of the GRNNI model was higher than that of both RK and OK. The three accuracy indices (ME, MAE, and RMSE) of the GRNNI model were lower than those of RK and OK. Relative improvements of RMSE of the GRNNI model compared with RK and OK were 13.6% and 17.5%, respectively. In addition, a more realistic spatial pattern of SOM was produced by the model because the GRNNI model was more suitable than multiple linear regression to capture the nonlinear relationship between SOM and the auxiliary environmental variables. Therefore, the GRNNI model can improve both prediction accuracy and reliability for determining spatial distribution and variability of SOM.

The significant role of tropical forest ecosystems in the global carbon budget has increased the need for accurate estimates of tropical forest biomass. The lack of large-scale biomass allometric equations hampers the understanding of the spatial distribution of tree biomass and carbon stocks and their influencing factors in West Africa. This study aimed to develop allometric equations to estimate aboveground biomass of African oak (Afzelia africana Sm.) in Burkina Faso and to analyze factors affecting the variability of tree biomass and carbon storage. Sixty individual trees were destructively sampled in four protected areas along two climatic zones. In each climatic zone, log–log models were tested and fitted to each aboveground biomass component and to the total aboveground biomass. Carbon content in tree aboveground components was evaluated using the ash method. All validated equations showed good fit and performance with high explained variance. Allometric equations differed between the Sudano-sahelian zone and the Sudanian zone, except for leaf biomass equations. Both biomass allocation and carbon content varied significantly between tree components but not between climatic zones. Carbon content in tree components followed the patterns of biomass allocation with branches accounting for the highest proportion. In the two climatic zones, carbon contents were 50.18–52.62% for leaves, 54.78–54.94% for stems and 54.96–55.99% for branches. Dry biomass ranged from 509.05 to 765.56 kg tree⁻¹ at site level and from 620.21 to 624.48 kg tree⁻¹ along climatic zones. Carbon content varied from 53.90% in the Sudano-sahelian zone to 54.39% in the Sudanian zone. This study indicated that climate does not influence aboveground biomass production and carbon sequestration of Afzelia africana along the Sudano-sahelian and the Sudanian climatic zones of Burkina Faso. Future studies on climate–growth relationships should contribute to better understanding climate effects on biomass production and carbon storage.

Biotic and abiotic factors control aboveground biomass (AGB) and the structure of forest ecosystems. This study analyses the variation of AGB and stand structure of evergreen broadleaved forests among six ecoregions of Vietnam. A data set of 173 1-ha plots from 52 locations in undisturbed old-growth forests was developed. The results indicate that basal area and AGB are closely correlated with annual precipitation, but not with annual temperature, evaporation or hours of sunshine. Basal area and AGB are positively correlated with trees > 30 cm DBH. Most areas surveyed (52.6%) in these old-growth forests had AGB of 100–200 Mg ha⁻¹; 5.2% had AGB of 400–500 Mg ha⁻¹, and 0.6% had AGB of > 800 Mg ha⁻¹. Seventy percent of the areas surveyed had stand densities of 300–600 ind. ha⁻¹, and 64% had basal areas of 20–40 m² ha⁻¹. Precipitation is an important factor influencing the AGB of old-growth, evergreen broadleaved forests in Vietnam. Disturbances causing the loss of large-diameter trees (e.g., > 100 cm DBH) affects AGB but may not seriously affect stand density.

The response of diversity and biomass of herbaceous functional groups along an altitudinal gradient in mountainous forests of southern Zagros, Khuzestan Province, Iran was studied by sampling vegetation in 30 circular 1000-m² plots in herb layer of the forest floor within 646–2447 m asl (lowland: < 1000 m asl, midland: 1000–2000 m asl, highland: > 2000 m asl). The most important herbaceous functional groups were classified based on two aspects of growth form: annuals–perennials, grasses–forbs. Then the relationship between the diversity, richness, evenness, biomass and elevation was analyzed. The results showed that the annual functional group in the low- and midland classes, and perennial functional group in the lowland class had the highest species diversity and evenness in annual and perennial functional groups, respectively (p < 0.01). The perennials in the highland class had the maximum total, above- and belowground dry biomass (p < 0.01). On the other hand, the forb functional group in the lowland class had the greatest species diversity, richness, and evenness (p < 0.01) and in the highland class had the maximum total dry, above- and belowground dry biomass in the grass and forb functional groups (p < 0.01). Increasing the diversity, richness, and species evenness resulted in a decrease in the plant dry biomass.

The conversion of forests into agricultural lands is a major cause of deforestation, particularly in the mountain ecosystems of northern Thailand. It results in a rapid loss of biological diversity of both flora and fauna. In addition, the above-ground biomass (AGB), which can be a major source of carbon storage, is also decreased. This study aimed to predict the AGB in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai province, based on land-use/land cover (LULC) changes from 2000 to 2030. Landsat-5 TM (2000) and Landsat-8 TM (2015) satellite images were analyzed to predict LULC changes to 2030. Temporary plots (30 m × 30 m) were established in each LULC type for AGB analysis; trees with diameters at breast height ≥ 4.5 cm were identified and measured. AGB of all LULC types were analyzed based on specific allometric equations of each type. The results show that area of forest and non-forested areas fluctuated during the study period. Through the first 15 years (2000–2015), 5% (2.9 km²) of forest changed to either agriculture or urban lands, especially mixed deciduous forest and lower montane forest. There was a similar trend in the 2030 prediction, showing the effect of forest fragmentation and the resultant high number of patches. Total AGB tended to decrease over the 30-year period from 12.5 to 10.6 t ha⁻¹ in the first and second periods, respectively. Deforestation was the main factor influencing the loss of AGB (30.6 t ha⁻¹) related to LULC changes. Furthermore, habitat loss would be expected to result in decreased biological diversity. Consequently, a management plan should be developed to avoid unsustainable land use changes, which may adversely affect human well-being.

Accurate information on the location and magnitude of vegetation change in scenic areas can guide the configuration of tourism facilities and the formulation of vegetation protection measures. High spatial resolution remote sensing images can be used to detect subtle vegetation changes. The major objective of this study was to map and quantify forest vegetation changes in a national scenic location, the Purple Mountains of Nanjing, China, using multi-temporal cross-sensor high spatial resolution satellite images to identify the main drivers of the vegetation changes and provide a reference for sustainable management. We used Quickbird images acquired in 2004, IKONOS images acquired in 2009, and WorldView2 images acquired in 2015. Four pixel-based direct change detection methods including the normalized difference vegetation index difference method, multi-index integrated change analysis (MIICA), principal component analysis, and spectral gradient difference analysis were compared in terms of their change detection performances. Subsequently, the best pixel-based detection method in conjunction with object-oriented image analysis was used to extract subtle forest vegetation changes. An accuracy assessment using the stratified random sampling points was conducted to evaluate the performance of the change detection results. The results showed that the MIICA method was the best pixel-based change detection method. And the object-oriented MIICA with an overall accuracy of 0.907 and a kappa coefficient of 0.846 was superior to the pixel-based MIICA. From 2004 to 2009, areas of vegetation gain mainly occurred around the periphery of the study area, while areas of vegetation loss were observed in the interior and along the boundary of the study area due to construction activities, which contributed to 79% of the total area of vegetation loss. During 2009–2015, the greening initiatives around the construction areas increased the forest vegetation coverage, accounting for 84% of the total area of vegetation gain. In spite of this, vegetation loss occurred in the interior of the Purple Mountains due to infrastructure development that caused conversion from vegetation to impervious areas. We recommend that: (1) a local multi-agency team inspect and assess law enforcement regarding natural resource utilization; and (2) strengthen environmental awareness education.

The identification of forests infested by parasitic plants is important for the design of appropriate control and prevention strategies. Satellite images and geographic information systems are commonly used to analyze the presence of pest and parasitic plants in the forests. However there is a need for finer resolution. In the last decade, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles has become increasingly common for capturing aerial images (< 10 cm per pixel). The objective of the study was to obtain RGB values (Red, Green and Blue) through the colorimetric ranges for use in identification of Yellow Dwarf Mistletoe (YDM) (Arceuthobium globosum) in aerial images taken in a forest of central Mexico via a programmed algorithm. Three tonalities of YDM were classified according to its phenological stages, viz. green (young stage), yellow (adult stage), and brown (senescence stage), considering two light intensities, sunny and cloudy. Non-parametric tests were used in statistical analyses. The Spearman test showed significant negative correlation (p < 0.001) between phenological stage and colour, indicating that lower RGB values were associated with greater age. The differences between groups were analysed using Kruskal–Wallis (p < 0.01) and Mann–Whitney tests (p < 0.01). The applied algorithm identified the presence and predominant colours of YDM according to its phenological stage.

Forest stands in the semi-arid environment of northern Mongolia have an essential role in controlling ongoing desertification in the surrounding landscape. Over the last decade, the total forest area has decreased dramatically. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of natural regeneration as an essential element for ensuring sustainability of these forests. Based on field measurements from 120 plots in six sites, our assessment tool revealed five qualitative categories of forest regeneration, allowing us to assess impacts of both grazing and environmental conditions on the regeneration process. Grazing is a crucial factor and adversely affects regeneration. For sites with relatively low grazing intensity, low soil moisture levels represent the main reason for reduced regeneration. The approach to classification proposed in this study allows for the identification and interpretation of stand conditions where natural regeneration has failed. This study provides an important foundation to inform decision- making related to land protection and restoration actions. Our findings could be used in comparative studies and, importantly, may aid further mapping of Mongolian forests.

The cultural universe is sometimes confusing, surprising and murky, so many cultural maps get drawn, discussed and envisioned. A study was undertaken around Mabira Forest Reserve in central Uganda to identify the trees and shrubs culturally managed on-farm, assess the cultural practices of forest and tree system management and determine the relationship between farmer gender and forest and tree system management. We engaged 203 farmers in focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews to collect data. Qualitative data were jointly evaluated with farmers; quantitative data were analyzed in SPSS 20.0. The results showed a high likelihood for involvement of local people in tree or forest management for economic gain, as timber and fast-growing species were highly ranked. Food and medicinal species were also regarded as important, suggesting high prospects of integrating them into the local farming system or protecting them in the forest. Numerous cultural practices (including rituals, trenching, bark slashing, ring barking, spot weeding and use of organic manure and pesticides) of forest and tree system management were acknowledged. However, their knowledge was mixed and unclear about distinct cultural and supportive arrangements for natural forest and tree restoration. While gender was not a significant cultural attribute for knowledge of the forest and allied tree system management, age substantially affected farmer propensity for various timber products. Also farmer’s family size influenced the collection of tree wildings and fodder. We encourage considering gender disparities and livelihood needs including income, during selection of cultural practices for forest and tree restoration.

We investigated the effects of precommercial thinning (PCT) applied at different levels on the growth parameters of natural Anatolian black pine stand. The experimental site was located in the province of Isparta in southern Turkey. PCT was set up using a randomized complete block design with three replicates and three treatments (control, 2–2.5 m ×  2–2.5 m and 3–3.5 m ×  3–3.5 m spacing). The experimental plots were established in March 2014. At the end of the growing seasons for three years (2014–2016), growth parameters such as diameter, height and crown radius were measured. PCT was found to be significantly effective on diameter, height, individual tree basal area, and crown radius increment at the end of the third year (p < 0.05). While diameter, individual tree basal area and crown radius increment increased with increasing PCT intensity, height increment was higher in control than PCT. Although the PCT treatments applied with 3–3.5 m spacing affected individual tree development positively, we need long-term results on wood quality and yield. According to the short-term results, it is thought that it is better to lower the stand closeness gradually, so, it may be advisable to apply PCT by 2–2.5 m × 2–2.5 m spacing.

The under-forest economy has received increased attention in China. However, little is known about the effects of co-composted biochar on soil and plant biomass in under-forest planting systems. In this study, plant biomass, soil nutrient levels, and bacterial communities were evaluated after application of biochar-based organic fertilizer (BOF, derived from co-composted biochar-compost) at varying rates to soils supporting Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels & Gilg planted under a Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) forest. BOF treatment increased the biomass of T. hemsleyanum. Compared with the control, BOF application significantly increased soil pH and organic carbon (SOC). The high-throughput sequencing results showed significant differences in the Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia, Chlorofexi, and OD1 phyla among all groups. At the genus level, the control group was characterized by a preponderance of Conexibacter. Rhodanobacter was enriched in soils with a 3% BOF application and Steroidobacter and Spirochaeta were the most prominent phyla in the 5% BOF group. There was no biomarker selected in the 1% BOF group at the genus level. In conclusion, BOF application increased the biomass of T. hemsleyanum when intercropped under a Moso bamboo forest; this effect may be due to changes in the soil physicochemical properties and microbial communities after BOF application.

A method for transient gene expression was developed for western white pine (WWP, Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D.Don) using reporter gene uidA encoding β-glucuronidase (GUS). GUS was transiently expressed in cross sections of primary and secondary needles, cotyledons, and current and second year stems of WWP via vacuum-infiltration with Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Histochemical assays of cross sections of secondary needles showed stronger blue color indicating GUS expression at day 1 and 2 than on other days post agroinfiltration (dpa). GUS activity expressed inside WWP cells was confirmed using light microscopy. In fluorometric assays, GUS expression was high at 1 dpa and lasted until 4 dpa in detached secondary needles, while similarly high expression levels only lasted until 2 dpa in attached secondary needles then dropped significantly. Although the length of GUS-staining zones varied among different WWP organs and between growth and dormant seasons, all tested WWP tissues using the protocol had high levels of transient GUS expression. Thus, heterologous candidate genes or endogenous silencing can be expressed in various WWP tissues or organs using this agroinfiltration approach. The current protocol for efficient transient gene expression will aid functional genomics study of WWP and its pathogens and related conifer species.

Agarwood is the resinous heartwood of Aquilaria species. However, low yields and high costs of existing stimulation methods have led to the need for new techniques to produce agarwood rapidly and effectively. We developed a biological agarwood-inducing technique (Agar-Bit) that produces high yields and quality within 6 months. To better understand agarwood formation by Agar-Bit, dynamic gene expressions of key synthetases pathways of sesquiterpenes and chalcone- related enzymes at different times were determined after both Agar-Bit and the traditional burning chisel drilling (BCD) stimulation on Aquilaria sinensis trees. The qRT-PCR results show that some characteristic synthase genes were expressed at greatly different levels and times compared with the controls. For the Agar-Bit technology, main changes were after the 3rd or 5th month, while BCD expression clearly changed at the 5th month. Essential oils and total chromone contents were simultaneously determined. In the Agar-Bit group, both were higher and similar to natural levels. The Agar-Bit methodology is a new option for producing agarwood as demonstrated by genetic and chemical aspects. The differences in gene expression within 6 months for both groups indicates that the mechanisms of the two methods are different. These findings provide information on genetic variation during the process of agarwood formation.

DNA methylation is widespread in plants and associated with plant development and defense mechanisms. However, the relationship between DNA methylation and plant secondary metabolism has rarely been reported. Here, when birch suspension cells were treated with 5-azacytidine (5-azaC), which blocks DNA methylation, triterpenoid accumulation was significantly promoted and antioxidant and defense enzymatic activity changed. For studying triterpenoid accumulation, 0.1 mM azaC was optimal. A qRT-PCR assay revealed increased expression of genes encoding key triterpenoid biosynthetic enzymes. Evaluation of methylation polymorphisms at CCGG sites showed that the methylation level was lower in cells treated with 5-azaC. These results demonstrated that 5-azaC treatment led to an increase in the production of triterpenoids in cell cultures through a mechanism that involved in DNA methylation, which resulted in the induction of genes encoding the key enzymes. The study provides evidence of a relationship between DNA methylation and regulation of secondary metabolism.

Soil salinization is a serious ecological problem worldwide and information regarding the salt tolerance mechanisms of Salix is scarce. To elucidate the dynamic changes in the molecular mechanisms of Salix under salt stress, we generated gene expression profiles and examined changes in the expression of those genes. RNA-Seq was used to produce six cDNA libraries constructed from the leaves of Salix ×  jiangsuensis CL ‘J2345’ treated with NaCl for 0, 2, 6, 12, 24 and 48 h. In total, 249 million clean reads were assembled into 12,739 unigenes, all of which were clustered into 10 profiles based on their temporal expression patterns. KEGG analysis revealed that as an early defense response, the biosynthesis pathways of cutin, suberin and wax, which are involved in cell wall structure, were activated beginning at 2 h. The expression of secondary metabolism genes, including those involved in the phenylpropanoid, flavonoid, stilbenoid, diarylheptanoid and gingerol pathways, peaked at 6 h and 24 h; the upregulated genes were mainly involved in plant hormone pathways and beta-alanine, galactose and betalain metabolism. We identified roles of key phytohormones and found ETH to be the major signaling molecule activating TFs at 12 h; ETH, ABA, IAA and SA were the key molecules at 24 h. Moreover, we found that the upregulated genes were associated with elevated levels of amino acids, sucrose, inositol, stress proteins and ROS-scavenging enzymes, contributing to the maintenance of water balance. This research constitutes the first detailed analysis of salt stress-related mechanisms in Salix and identifies potential targets for genetic manipulation to improve yields.

A transcriptomic database was constructed to study the biocontrol mechanisms of Trichoderma harzianum ACCC30371 using high quality UniGenes following growth in eight culture media [(1/2PD, minimal medium MM (containing dextrose 10 g L⁻¹), C starvation medium (derived from MM without dextrose), N starvation medium (derived from MM without ammonium sulphate), and four kinds of phytopathogenic fungi cell wall media]. A 4 Gbp transcriptome was generated and 96.7% of the database had a sequencing error rate less than 1%. A total of 25,013 UniGene sequences were obtained with a mean length of 1135 nt. There were 2571 sequences longer than 3000 nt. The National Center for Biotechnology Information Accession number of this transcriptome is SRR8382572. There were 16,360 Unigenes annotated to the Nr protein database, 9875 to the SwissProt database, 10,266 to the KEGG database, 7164 to the COG database, and 1508 to the GO database along with their protein functional annotations. There were 16,723 functional genes identified. We identified 402 bio-control genes, including 14 related to competition, 311 to mycoparasitism, 76 to antibiosis, and one related to eliciting a plant response. This shows that T. harzianum ACCC30371 has integrated biocontrol mechanisms, and of these mechanisms, mycoparasitism is the most prevalent. Antibiosis and induced systemic resistance also play important roles. These results provide a foundation for further research into the biocontrol mechanisms of Trichoderma, as well as the development and utilization of biological fungicides.

Populus alba is a foundation species in evolutionary and ecological studies in the northern hemisphere. In this study, the chloroplast genome and gene map of P. alba were constructed. The P. alba chloroplast genome is 156,505 bp in length comprising a large single-copy region, two inverted repeat regions and a small single-copy region. The genome contains 131 genes, including 86 protein-coding genes (77 PCG species), eight ribosomal RNA genes (four rRNA species) and 37 transfer RNA genes (30 tRNA species). Phylogenetic analysis indicates that all Populus chloroplast genome sequences are clustered together and divided into three large branches. Among reported Populus chloroplast genomes, the leuce section formed monophyletic, indicating that all Populus spp. have a common maternal ancestor. P. rotundifolia and P. tremula are closely related and are sisters to P. davidiana. P. alba is closely related to P. adenopoda. Population genetic research in ecology and evolution may be easily developed through chloroplast genomes as they are conserved. This research will benefit future studies related to Populus, one of the world’s most ecologically and economically important genera.

Auricularia heimuer, an edible jelly fungus, is in considerable demand in Asia due to its high nutritive, economic and medicinal values. RNA-Seq was used to investigate and analyze the mycelium transcriptome of A. heimuer for gene discovery. A total of 26,857 unigenes with an N50 length of 1333 bp were assembled by de novo sequencing. In addition, unigenes were annotated by publicly available databases, including gene descriptions, gene ontology (GO), clusters of orthologous group (COG), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) metabolic pathways, and protein family (Pfam) terms. A. heimuer was also studied for its wood degradation ability. Thirty-eight putative FOLymes (fungal oxidative lignin enzymes) and 251 CAZymes (carbohydrate-active enzymes) were located from A. heimuer transcriptome. Our study provides a comprehensive sequence resource for A. heimuer at the transcriptional level, which will lay a strong foundation for functional genomics studies and gene discovery of this promising fungus.

Zinc finger transcription factors play significant roles in the growth and development of plant and animal, but their function remains obscure in fungi. Lenzites gibbosa mycelia were extracted and sequenced by transcriptome analysis after growing on sawdust at different times to support mycelial growth of L. gibbosa in a nutrient matrix. Data bases used for analysis were the Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) annotation, the cluster of orthologous groups of proteins (COG) and gene ontology (GO) annotation. Zinc finger class genes related to the growth and development of L. gibbosa were screened. GO annotation and enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes were carried out. A total of 114.55 Gb Clean Data were obtained from the L. gibbosa transcriptome. The average Clean Data in each sample was 6.16 Gb. The relative efficiency of reads between each sample and the reference genome was 88.5% to 91.4%. The COG analysis showed that most zinc finger protein genes were related to replication, recombination and repair function. GO enrichment analysis showed that the expressed genes involved in cellular process, cell part and binding. We identified seventy-two expressed genes including seven up-regulated genes and sixty-five down-regulated genes by applying DESeq2 data analysis software. By comparing the significantly expressed genes with KEGG database, 66 annotated sequences were obtained, and 35 primary metabolic pathways were annotated. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that differentially expressed genes were significantly enriched in protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis pathways. Gene_11750 and gene_5266 are highly correlated with the growth and development of L. gibbosa and are closely related to protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis pathway. According to gene functional analysis, seven important differentially expressed genes related to the growth and development of L. gibbosa were identified.

Population density, species richness and critical population parameters are crucial in determining the levels of gene diversity in dioecious species of the genus Calamus. The extent of intraspecific and intrageneric genetic variability in Calamus from the southern Western Ghats of India was studied using 26 microsatellite markers by sampling 227 individuals belonging to seven economically important species. The heterozygosity of microsatellite loci ranged from zero to 0.78. Average gene diversity within species was 0.13; in all species it was 0.18 and amongst species was 0.06. The Shannon Information Index was the lowest for Calamus metzianus (0.11), whereas it ranged from 0.16 to 0.26 for other species. The expected heterozygosity varied from 0.08 to 0.18. Calamus hookerianus and Calamu travancoricus showed the highest genetic differentiation (44%) revealed through Fst values, whereas the lowest (22%) was observed between Calamus gamblei and Calamu thwaitesii. Population structuring and phylogenetic analysis differentiated the seven species. Due to overexploitation and loss of rare alleles, small populations could lead to fertilization between closely related individuals, resulting in inbreeding and increasing the risk of extinction. This could be important for species such as C. metzianus where allelic polymorphism was 23%, whereas for all other species it was 38% to 46%. Genetic diversity “micro-hotspots” were identified from the protected area network of the southern and central Western Ghats with highest observed heterozygosity. Four micro-hotspots from the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve and the Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary may be possible for long-term conservation programs. The findings of this study lay a strong foundation for strengthening protected area networks, especially areas with intermediate levels of disturbance.

SWEET transporters play a pivotal role in sugar transport in plants. However, their functions in pollen tube growth, especially in coniferous species remain unknown. Here, we used RT-qPCR to reveal that a SWEET1 gene was specifically expressed in pollen and pollen tubes of Picea wilsonii. A pollen germination assay showed that PwSWEET1 was induced by H₃BO₃ but not by Ca²⁺. In a sugar specificity experiment, sucrose (Suc) and glucose (Glc) were effective sugars for pollen germination and pollen tube growth. PwSWEET1 expression was induced most by Suc and Glc. Heterologous expression of PwSWEET1 in yeast showed that PwSWEET1 can restore the glucose absorption in yeast strain EBY.VW4000, which has a hexose absorption defect, and the absorption of glucose is pH-independent. This evidence supports the involvment of PwSWEET1 in boron-dependent glucose transport in pollen germination and pollen tube growth of Picea wilsonii.

Ecdysteroids play an important role in regulating diverse physiological processes in arthropods, such as molting, metamorphosis, reproduction and diapause. Ecdysteroids mediate the response by binding to a heterodimeric complex of two nuclear receptors: the ecdysone receptor and the ultraspiracle (USP). To investigate the role of USP in development of the Asian gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), a USP cDNA was obtained from the transcriptome of L. dispar and verified by PCR. In-depth profiling of transcript levels of L. dispar USP-1 (LdUSP-1) at different developmental stages and over time in third-instar larvae and different tissues isolated during the third-instar stage of L. dispar was then carried out. Transcript levels of LdUSP-1 were relatively high before 72 h in the third-instar larvae after ecdysis and in the adult male. The function of LdUSP-1 in molting was analyzed by knockdown of LdUSP-1 in third instar larvae using RNA interference. Silencing of LdUSP-1 significantly downregulated the transcript level of E75, an ecdysone-inducible gene, and of Sad, a Halloween gene. In addition, the duration of the third-instar stage was slightly shortened and larval mortality increased after the LdUSP-1 knockdown.

Mineralisable soil organic carbon (SOC) pools vary with ecosystem type in response to changes in climate, vegetation and soil properties. Understanding the effect of climate and soil factors on SOC pools is critical for predicting change over time. Surface soil samples from six ecoregions of the United States were analyzed for permanganate oxidizable C (KMnO₄-C) and mineralizable C pools. Variations of SOC ranged from 7.9 mg g⁻¹ (Florida site) to 325 mg g⁻¹ (Hawaii site). Mineralisable C pools and KMnO₄-C were highest in soils from the Hawaii site. Mean annual precipitation explains SOC and resistant C pool variations. Clay content was related to mineralisable active C pools and bacterial abundance. Mean annual precipitation and clay content are potential variables for predicting changes in SOC pools at large spatial scales.

Soil respiration studies in paludified forests of the European part of Russia are quite rare in comparison with those of open peat bogs, which make long-term observations in this region highly relevant. In this study, soil CO₂ emissions were measured by the close chamber method in different microlandscapes of paludified forests. For four summer seasons with different environments, soil respiration ranged from 1078 to 248 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹ in a paludified spruce forest site with coarse woody debris to 659–820 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹ in a paludified boggy pine forest. The most intensive soil respiration was observed during the hot summer of 2013 and the lowest in the hot and humid summer of 2016. Annual total soil CO₂ emissions in paludified forests in 2015–2016 were approximately 2000–3000 g CO₂ m⁻². During the year, the lowest CO₂ emission values were observed from November to April (14–84 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹) and the maximum were in July and August (522–1205 mg CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹). The contributions of CO₂ emissions in the cold November–April period were 6–8.5%. The impacts of temperature on soil respiration were higher (r ² = 0.45–0.57) than those of groundwater levels (r ² = 0.17–0.49). Soil respiration in the paludified spruce forest and in the pine bog generally were higher than emissions from ecosystems with similar hydrothermal conditions in the boreal zone.

Soil enzymes play a vital role in biogeochemical cycling and ecosystem functions. In this study, we examined the response of six soil enzymes to changes in physicochemical properties resulting from changes in season and vegetation and geological conditions. Catalase, urease, acid phosphatase, invertase, amylase, and cellulase not only promote carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycling, but also participate in the decomposition of harmful substances. Thirty-six soil samples were collected from karst and non-karst areas in two different seasons and from three different types of vegetation in Yunnan province, southwest China. Both vegetation types and season had significant effects on soil physicochemical properties and enzyme activities. In the same plot, soil water content, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus increased in the rainy season, indicating enhanced microbial metabolic activity. With the exception of urease activity, the remaining five enzymes showed higher activity in the rainy season. Changes in activities between the two seasons were significant in all samples. In the same season, activity levels of soil enzymes were higher in karst areas than in non-karst areas, and higher in natural forest than in artificial forests. The transformative abilities of soil elements are higher in karst areas than in non-karst areas, and higher in natural forests than in artificial forests. Correlation analysis showed that the activities of the six enzymes correlated significantly; however, soil physical and chemical indices, such as organic matter, pH, and moisture, which are essential for enzyme activity, differed by season. Redundancy analysis also revealed that the main factors influencing enzyme activity differed between the two seasons. The results from this study provide a theoretical basis for further research on the restoration of natural ecological systems in karst landscapes.

Timber forests contribute to the sustainable development of the biomes in tropical regions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biological and chemical properties of the soil as a consequence of the cover with native and non-native species in the Acaraú basin, a transition area from the coast to the Brazilian semi-arid region. Areas planted with four native species (Anadenanthera colubrina, Astronium fraxinifolium, Handroanthus impetiginosus, Colubrina glandulosa) and three exotic species (Acacia mangium, Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptus urophylla) plus a non-forested agricultural area were evaluated for organic carbon contents, and microbial and chemical soil properties. The levels of soil organic carbon were highest in A. colubrina and C. equisetifolia plantations. Low basal soil respiration was observed but the microbial biomass was particularly low in the non-forested area. In the C. equisetifolia, E. urophylla, and H. impetiginosus plantations, elevated soil metabolic quotients were found. The A. colubrina and H. impetiginosus plantations had the highest levels of easily extracted-glomalin related soil protein. Tree species affect concentrations of essential nutrients and the biological quality of the soil in different ways. They can also improve the biological and chemical properties of the soil in the coastal plains of tropical regions.

Castanopsis fargesii is a good afforestation plants and various microorganisms play important roles in mediating the growth and ecological functions of this species. In this study, we evaluated changes in microbial communities in soil samples from C. fargesii forests. The phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) biomarker method was used to obtain bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, gram-positive bacteria (G+), gram-negative bacteria (G−), aerobic bacteria, and anaerobic bacteria to investigate spatiotemporal changes in microbial communities during the growing season. The results show that soil microorganisms were mainly concentrated in the upper 20-cm layer, demonstrating an obvious surface aggregation (P < 0.05). Large amounts of litter and heavy rainfall during the early growing season resulted in the highest PLFA contents for various microorganisms, whereas relatively low and stable levels were observed during other times. The dominant species during each period were bacteria. G+ or aerobic bacteria were the main bacterial populations, providing insights into the overall trends of soil bacterial PLFA contents. Due to the relative accumulation of refractory substances during the later stages of litter decomposition, the effects of fungi increased significantly. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the main factors influencing microbial communities were litter, rainfall, and soil field capacity.

We optimized the extraction process of Lysurus mokusin (L.) Fr. insecticidal compound (LMIC) using response surface methodology with ultrasonic extraction (UE). The surface morphologies of maceration extract (ME) and UE residues were compared by scanning electron microscopy, and then the activity of LMIC on Lymantria dispar (Asian gypsy moths) larvae was determined. Results showed that the optimal condition of UE was followed by 80 min of extraction time, 60% of ethanol concentration and 80 mL g⁻¹ of liquid–solid ratio. The surface morphologies of UE residue were looser and rougher than ME residue. The corrected mortalities of LMIC on L. dispar larvae was 59.77%. This result indicated that L. mokusin was a good candidate as pesticide for pest management.

Understanding the drivers of biological invasions in landscapes is a major goal in invasion ecology. The control of biological invasions has increasingly become critical in the past few decades because invasive species are thought to be a major threat to endemism. In this study, by examining the key variables that influence Acacia mearnsii, we sought to understand its potential invasion in eastern Zimbabwe. We used the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) method against a set of environmental variables to predict the potential invasion front of A. mearnsii. Our study showed that the predictor variables, i.e., aspect, elevation, distance from streams, soil type and distance from the nearest A. mearnsii plantation adequately explained (training AUC = 0.96 and test AUC = 0.93) variability in the spatial distribution of invading A. mearnsii. The front of invasion by A. mearnsii seemed also to occur next to existing A. mearnsii plantations. Results from our study could be useful in identifying priority areas that could be targeted for controlling the spread of A. mearnsii in Zimbabwe and other areas under threat from A. mearnsii invasion. We recommend that the plantation owners pay for the control of A. mearnsii invasion about their plantations.

The structure of the primary olfactory brain center was studied in male and female adult Ambrostoma quadriimpressum by means of a series of histological sections labeled using the reduced-silver-stain technique. The antennal lobe was elliptical, and the total number of glomeruli was approximately 50 in the antennal lobe in both sexes. There was no sexual dimorphism with respect to the size of the antennal lobe or the number and shape of glomeruli.

Boxelder maple (Acer negundo L.) is widely grown as ornamental trees in China. In 2017 in Pizhou, Jiangsu Province, China, the boxelder maple trees suffered from a disease which caused wilting and yellowing leaves, rotted roots, and discolored xylem. The disease broke out from July to August. Seven fungal isolates were obtained from symptomatic tissue and tested for pathogenicity. Isolate An7 was isolated at high frequency from the discolored vascular tissues, which caused the wilt disease on healthy 2-year-old seedlings after inoculation and eventually killed all the seedlings. We conducted molecular analysis for An7, including the partial sequences of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer, calmodulin, RNA polymerase II second largest subunit and the translation elongation factor 1-α and evaluation of the variously sized conidia, chlamydospores and conidiophores and cultural traits. The pathogen was identified as Fusarium nirenbergiae, a member of the Fusarium oxysporum species complex. To our knowledge, this is the first report of F. nirenbergiae causing wilt on A. negundo in China.

The experiment was conducted to improve the decay resistance of wood by increasing the wood preservatives uptake and penetration depth by bioincising with Coriolus versicolor. The mechanical properties of bioincised Populus davidiana sapwood were measured. The changes of wood components (lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose) were analyzed by FTIR. The staining treatment using potassium permanganate was to measure the preservatives uptake and penetration depth in wood specimens. The decay resistance of bioincised specimens impregnated with IPBC and CA was assessed against C. versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum using bioincised P. davidiana sapwood and untreated controls. The results showed that the mechanical properties of the bioincised specimens were changed with the incubation time and mass loss. The mechanical strength was decreased after 17 days compared to that of the specimens bioincised < 13 days. The bioincised specimens demonstrated the deeper penetration depth than the un-bioincised specimens. It was significant correlation (P < 0.01) between penetration depth and incubation time. The average value of the penetration depth of the bioincised specimens was deeper than the control groups by 158.7%. By FTIR analysis, the biodegradation ability of C. versicolor to decay cellulose and hemicellulose was weaker than that of lignin. The bioincising treatment significantly increased the wood uptake of IPBC and CA, and reached the maximum uptake value at 17 and 13 days, respectively. Summarily, the bioincising pretreatment can obviously improve the wood decay resistance against C. versicolor and G. trabeum following by introducing the IPBC and CA.