Temperate coniferous forest soils are considered important sinks of soil organic carbon (C). Fresh C inputs may, however, affect soil microbial activity, leading to increased organic matter decomposition and carbon dioxide production. Litter consists of labile and recalcitrant fractions which are thought to be utilized by distinct microbial communities and at different rates during the growing season. In this study, we incubated the whole litter (LC + RC), the labile (LC) and the recalcitrant (RC) fractions with the coniferous soil at two temperatures representing spring/autumn (10 °C) and summer (20 °C) for one month. Soil respiration and microbial community composition were regularly determined using phospholipid fatty acids as biomarkers. The LC fraction greatly increased soil respiration at the beginning of the incubation period but this effect was rather short-term. The effect of the RC fraction persisted longer and, together with the LC + RC fraction, respiration increased during the whole incubation period. Decomposition of the RC fraction was more strongly affected by higher temperatures than decomposition of the more labile fractions (LC and LC + RC). However, when we consider the relative increase in soil respiration compared to the dH₂O treatment, respiration increased more at a lower temperature, suggesting that available C is more important for microbial metabolism at lower temperatures. Although C was added only once in our study, no changes in microbial community composition were detected, possibly because the microbial community is adapted to relatively low amounts of additional C such as the amounts naturally found in litter.

Arthropod assemblages and decomposition rates were compared in the litter of pure and mixed Quercus (Quercus petraea L.) and Fagus (Fagus orientalis L.) stands. Litter was sampled on a monthly basis for 1 year and stored in litterbags of different mesh sizes. The experimental objective was to test the effect of mesh size on litter decomposition, decomposition rates of litter, and diversity of the invertebrate fauna between the two types of stands. Decomposition rates were measured by filling three fiber litterbags of different mesh sizes with pure Quercus litter (3 g) left in the pure Quercus stand, and litterbags with Fagus litter (3 g) were left in the pure Fagus stand. Mixed litter samples were prepared by mixing of equal amounts of each litter in the same litterbag and leaving them in the mixed stand. The residual mass of litter from the pure Quercus stand was significantly lower in fine- and coarse-mesh bags than in the medium-mesh bags in pure the Fagus stand. Carbon and nitrogen levels in the pure Quercus litter were significantly different among the mesh sizes at the end of the incubation period. Macroarthropods from 27 taxa were collected from pitfall traps every month. Their relative numbers differed significantly between the pure and mixed-stand litter samples. Litter-dwelling Isotomidae (Collembola) and Mesostigmata (Acarina), and soil-dwelling Mesostigmata were the most numerous in the mixed stand. It is significant that the abundance of macroarthropods contributed to the mass loss of litter in both the medium and coarse mesh sizes in the mixed stand, but did not significantly affect the mass of litter in the pure stands. In the mixed stand, there was a negative correlation between litter mass loss and total number of microarthropods in all mesh sizes. Mixed-stand litter decomposed more slowly than pure-stand litter.

The management of deer impacts on forested lands requires quantification of the negative factors (e.g., bark stripping) on tree survival in relation to other ecological variables (e.g., competition from neighboring trees). This study measured the effects of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, and competition among trees on the survival of Abies veitchii in a subalpine coniferous forest in central Japan over 12 years. Most of the trees subjected to bark stripping by deer were small (< 10 cm in diameter at breast height); however, some trees were stripped repeatedly. Although light bark stripping did not strongly influence tree survival after 12 years, heavily stripped stems (i.e., > 65% of the stem circumference stripped) were severely affected. The effect on longevity for each tree after bark stripping was explained by maximum bark stripping intensity during the study period, rather than initial bark stripping intensity. When > 85% of the stem circumference had been stripped, survival rates decreased. Bark stripping influenced survival rates much more than competition from neighboring trees. Because bark stripping occurred repeatedly, frequent measurements are important to grasp the full effects caused by this action. Heavy bark stripping of a stem enhances tree mortality. Thus, management of bark stripping is an essential element of stand maintenance and species composition in subalpine coniferous forests in Japan.

Graveyards or sacred groves are often places of natural vegetation protected by spiritual believers because of their sacred beliefs and indigenous culture. A study of graveyards was conducted to determine their role in species conservation, community formation, and associated indicators and species composition using multivariate statistical approaches. It was hypothesized that variations in the age of graveyards would give rise to diverse plant communities under the impact of various edaphic and climatic factors. Quantitative ecological techniques were applied to determine various phytosociological attributes. All the data were put in MS Excel for analysis in PCORD and CANOCO softwares for cluster analysis (CA), two-way cluster analysis (TWCA), indicator species analysis and canonical correspondence analysis. CA and TWCA through Sorenson distance measurements identified five major graveyard plant communities: (1) Ficus–Bougainvillea–Chenopodium; (2) Acacia–Datura–Convolvulus; (3) Ziziphus–Vitex–Abutilon; (4) Acacia–Lantana–Salsola; and (5) Melia–Rhazya–Peganum. Species such as Capparis decidua, Herniaria hirsuta, Salvadora oliedes and Populus euphratica were only present inside graveyards rather than outside and advocate the role of graveyards in species conservation. The impact of different environmental and climatic variables plus the age of the graveyards were also assessed for comparison of plant communities and their respective indicator species. The results indicate that higher chlorine concentration, age of graveyards, low soil electrical conductivity, lower anthropogenic activities, higher nitrogen, calcium and magnesium concentrations in the soil, and sandy soils were the strong environmental variables playing a significant role in the formation of graveyard plant communities, their associated indicators and species distribution patterns. These results could further be utilized to evaluate the role of edaphic and climatic factors, indicator species and conservation management practices at a greater scale.

Growth response of conifers is species- specific and depends on site and climate conditions. Studies on daily radial stem growth use different analytical approaches to determine species reactions to environmental conditions. These results contribute to improve forecasts of tree growth under a changing climate. During 2013 and 2014, radial stem growth of 33 mature Cedrus libani individuals growing under different climatic conditions in Turkey and Germany was monitored hourly using high precision point dendrometers. Stem radius increments (SRI) were extracted from dendrometer readings. The annual course of SRI showed site-specific patterns with mean daily values ranging between 9.9 and 29.3 µm over the growing season. Correlation and principal component analyses indicated that humidity and low temperatures during the growing season favored SRI. Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that precipitation and relative air humidity were the most important factors influencing daily SRI. Climate-growth relationships were further evaluated using the regression tree method. Precipitation was the most significant factor on daily SRI for all sites. The close coupling of SRI to relative air humidity and precipitation underlines the importance of stem water status for radial stem growth of C. libani which is native to regions with summer drought. It further explains the superior growth of C. libani in Germany.

Ethiopian moist evergreen Afromontane forests are vital for the conservation of plant diversity, including genetic pools of Coffea arabica L. However, these forests are continuously shrinking and need empirical scientific studies for their effective conservation and sustainable management. This study was, therefore, conducted to assess woody species composition, diversity, endemicity, structure, plant communities, and environmental determinants in Sirso moist evergreen Afromontane forest of southern Ethiopia. Environmental variables such as altitude, slope, aspect, disturbance levels, and geographical location were recorded for each main plots. Vegetation structure and importance value index (IVI), diversity, vegetation classification, and correlation with environmental factors were analyzed. A total of 74 woody species representing 70 genera and 34 families were identified. Seven species were endemic. Rhus glutinosa A. Rich subsp. glutinosa and Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. were species categorized as vulnerable according to the IUCN red list category. The highest number of species was recorded for the Rubiaceae family (8), followed by Euphorbiaceae (6), and Asteraceae (6). Five plant communities were identified: Maesa lanceolata–Dombeya torrida, Galiniera saxifraga–Cyathea manniana, Vepris dainellii–Triumfetta tomentosa, Dracaena fragrans–Rytigynia neglecta, and Arundinaria alpina. The distribution of these communities depends on altitude, slope, and disturbance factors. Syzygium guineense (Wild.) DC., Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Harms, and Galiniera saxifraga (Hochst.) Bridson were species with the highest IVI, while P. africana, Cordia africana Lam., Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmelin, Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill., and C. arabica had the lowest. Population structure of woody species showed an inverted J-shape, a J-shape, a bell-shape, and an irregular shaped pattern. These latter three population structure revealed signs of disturbances, and were negatively correlated with altitude and slope. The study showed that the Sirso moist evergreen Afromontane forest is species rich and should be given conservation priority to maintain endemic and native species.

Spatial distribution is fundamental for understanding species coexistence mechanisms in forest communities. Here we comprehensively explored fine-scale spatial patterns of tree species in a secondary warm-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest community in north China. Aggregated distribution patterns were predominant. Species functional traits had no significant effects on their spatial patterns. The aggregation intensity decreased with increasing DBH and abundance. The multivariate linear stepwise regression showed that abundance and maximum DBH were correlated with the aggregation intensity. Our results partially confirm that species attributes (abundance, DBH) and habitat heterogeneity may primarily contribute to spatial patterns and species coexistence in this secondary forest.

Abies gracilis Kom. (Pinaceae) is one of the rarest and endangered conifers in the Russian flora, which must be cultivated ex situ to ensure its survival. Cuttings of A. gracilis do not take root without biostimulants. We used a selection of biostimulants, concentrations, and conditions of their use to significantly increase Abies gracilis rooting, and to accelerate the production of planting material, and to reduce rooting time to one season. We tested 4 rooting systems: IBA, IBA with glucose and glycine, and original biostimulants (S-try and S-5). The original S-5 biostimulating system had the most balanced ratio of components. The number of rooted samples increased 2.7 times and the length of roots increased 1.8 time when using S-5 as compared to IBA. S-try and S-5—original biostimulant systems were synthesized and collected in 2011 and 2014, respectively, and were tested in St. Petersburg Forest Technical University.

Seedling quality is important for subtropical tree species endangered by the degradation of natural habitats in southern China. At present, the cultural regime for raising these seedlings involving fertilizer levels and size of container is not clear. In this study, seedlings of three endangered species, red-seed tree (Ormosia hosiei), Zhejiang phoebe (Phoebe chekiangensis), and Zhejiang camphor (Cinnamomum japonicum) were evaluated along with red-bark oak (Cyclobalanopsis gilva) as a reference, a species which is not endangered. Seedlings were raised in 2.8, 3.6, 5.1, and 6.3 L containers and fertilizer applied at 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 kg m⁻³. Seedling height and leaf biomass increased in response to higher fertilizer levels while larger containers resulted in greater stem and root biomass. Root biomass of endangered species seedlings did not respond to neither treatments. Zhejiang phoebe seedlings responded to nitrogen and phosphorus uptake but red-seed tree seedlings were unaffected by any nutrient levels. Red-bark oak seedlings had high nitrogen-use efficiency. Based on the results, it is recommended using at least 5.1 L containers to culture Zhejiang phoebe and Zhejiang camphor seedlings with fertilizer at 3.0 kg m⁻³. Red-bark oak and red-seed tree seedlings should be cultured with 2.0 kg m⁻³ in smaller containers.

Assisted migration has been proposed as a strategy for adaptive management of forest species in response to expected effects of climate change, but it is controversial for several reasons. Tropical dry forests are among the most threatened ecosystems in the world. In Mexico, historically, land-use change and deforestation have been decreasing forest cover, and climate change is shifting the potential distribution of different forest types, exacerbating the risk of local extinctions. Assisted altitudinal migration could be a feasible strategy for reducing local extinctions in response to climate change and lack of landscape connectivity. Our objective was to evaluate survival and growth of Albizia plurijuga and Ceiba aesculifolia, two tropical deciduous forests species in Mexico. We transplanted 4-month-old seedlings to experimental raised beds at three altitudes (2100, 2400 and 2700 m a.s.l.), exceeding their upper regional limit of distribution (2000 m a.s.l.). We also tested seed germination at each altitude. We monitored the experiment for 10 months. For both species, as altitude increased and cold weather was more prevalent, plant performance declined. Within species, differences in individual growth were significant among altitudes. Overall survival was 18.5% for A. plurijuga and 24.5% for C. aesculifolia. Both species had higher survival and better growth at lower altitude, and no seedling emergence at any altitude. We conclude that assisted migration can be implemented for each species by an upward attitudinal shift within, and not exceeding, 400 m beyond their present upper altitudinal limit of distribution. Our results indicate that for many species that show altitudinal gradients at regional scales, unless current climate conditions change, the potential to establish outside their range is minimal.

Linear risk programming was used to determine the optimum cultivation pattern to increase incomes of poplar farmers. Seven clones of Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. were examined in Guilan province, northern Iran. Growth and price data were taken from previous research at the Safrabaste Poplar Research Station and in interviews with farmers. The Lingo software was used to analyze the data in different forms of E. The results show that when risk was considered, the optimal solution included the clones Pd63/51-x1, -Pd72/51-x3, Pd73/51-x4 and Pd79/51-x6. There was a high growth fluctuations of the clones Pd69/55-x2, Pd77. 51-x5, and Pd caroliniensis-x7 and were not included in cultivation plans. Furthermore, the existing farm plans executed by local farmers, is neither profit-oriented nor efficient in terms of income risk management according to risk efficient frontier. These results could help farmers with different levels of risk-aversion to select proper planting plans.

Biomass estimation using allometric models is a nondestructive and popular method. Selection of an allometric model can influence the accuracy of biomass estimation. Bangladesh Forest Department initiated a nationwide forest inventory to assess biomass and carbon stocks in trees and forests. The relationship between carbon storage and sequestration in a forest has implications for climate change mitigation in terms of the carbon sink in Bangladesh. As part of the national forest inventory, we aimed to derive multi-species biomass models for the hill zone of Bangladesh and to determine the carbon concentration in tree components (leaves, branches, bark and stem). In total, 175 trees of 14 species were sampled and a semi-destructive method was used to develop a biomass model, which included development of smaller branch (base dia < 7 cm) biomass allometry and volume estimation of bigger branches and stems. The best model of leaf, branches, and bark showed lower values for adjusted R ² (0.3152–0.8043) and model efficiency (0.436–0.643), hence these models were not recommended to estimate biomass. The best fit model of stem and total aboveground biomass (TAGB) showed higher model efficiency 0.948 and 0.837, respectively, and this model was recommended for estimation of tree biomass for the hill zone of Bangladesh. The best fit allometric biomass model for stem was Ln (Stem) = − 10.7248 + 1.6094*Ln (D) + 1.323*Ln (H) + 1.1469*Ln (W); the best fit model for TAGB was Ln (TAGB) = − 6.6937 + 0.809*Ln (D^2*H*W), where DBH = Diameter at Breast Height, H = Total Height, W = Wood density. The two most frequently used pan-tropical biomass models showed lower model efficiency (0.667 to 0.697) compared to our derived TAGB model. The best fit TAGB model proved applicable for accurate estimation of TAGB for the hill zone of Bangladesh. Carbon concentration varied significantly (p < 0.05) by species and tree components. Higher concentration (48–49%) of carbon was recorded in the tree stem.

Temperate and high-latitude forests are carbon sinks and play pivotal roles in offsetting greenhouse gas emissions of CO₂. However, uncertainty still exists for subtropical forests, especially in monsoon-prevalent eastern Asia. Earlier studies have depended on remote sensing, ecosystem modeling, carbon fluxes, or single period forest surveys to estimate carbon sequestration capacities, and the results vary significantly. This study was designed to utilize multi-period forest survey data to explore spatial-dynamics of biomass storage in subtropical forests of China. Jiangxi province, a region with over 60% subtropical forest cover, was selected as the case study site and is located in central east China. Based on forest inventory data 1984–2013, and the stock-difference and biomass expansion factor methods, the carbon storage and density, of arboreal forests, economic forests, bamboo forests, woodlands and shrubberies were estimated. The results show that carbon storage increased from 159.1 Tg C in 1988 to 276.1 TgC in 2013, making up 3.1–3.8% of carbon stored throughout China. Among the four types of forests, the amount of carbon stored was as follows: arboreal forest > economic forest > bamboo forest > woodland and shrubbery. Arboreal forests accounted for 64.0–79.4% of the total. Forest carbon density increased from 21.2 Mg C ha⁻¹ in 1984 to 26.2 Mg C ha⁻¹ in 2013, equal to 61.2–70.2% of the average carbon density of China’s forests in the same period. Forest carbon storage in Jiangxi will reach 355.5 Tg C and 535.8 Tg C in 2020 and 2030, respectively, and forest carbon density is predicted to be 31.9 Mg C ha⁻¹ and 46.4 Mg C ha⁻¹, respectively. As one of the few studies using multi-period data tracking biomass dynamics in Jiangxi province, the findings of this study may be used as a reference for other research. Using Jiangxi as a case study underlies the fact that subtropical forests in China have great carbon sequestration potential and have fundamental significance to offset global environmental change effects.

Given the likelihood of regional extirpation of several once-common bat species in eastern North America from white-nose syndrome, it is critical that the impacts of forest management activities, such as prescribed fire, are known in order to minimize potentially additive negative effects on bat populations. Historic wildfires may offer a suitable surrogate to assess long-term burn impacts on bats for planning, implementing and assessing burn programs. To examine the effects of historic fire on bats, we sampled bat activities at 24 transect locations in burned and unburned forest stands in the central Appalachian Mountains of Shenandoah National Park (SNP), Virginia, USA. There was limited evidence of positive fire effects over time on hoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus Beauvois) and big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus Beauvois) occupancy. Overall, there were few or mostly equivocal relationships of bat occupancy relative to burn conditions or time since fire in SNP across species using a false-positive occupancy approach. Our results suggest that fire does not strongly affect bat site occupancy short- or long-term in the central Appalachians.

Considering that diverse fire severities can affect soil properties differently, the aim of this study was to examine to what extent changes in soil properties caused by fire could condition seedling establishment. This new approach is for identifying a new fire cause-effect chain to qualify the impacts of fire on soils with the purpose of using fire as a tool in forest management to favour Pinus halepensis Mill. regeneration. The study area was a reforested P. halepensis area which had been crossed by fire for 78.8 ha, causing various degrees of damage. The forest was subdivided into three large areas according to the gravity of crown scorch, [low (LS), medium (MS) and high (HS) severity], on the basis of needle yellowing which usually occurs after exposure to direct flames. Results showed significant differences in soil properties with respect to fire severity. In the HS area, total nitrogen and carbon were considerably reduced while ash and phosphorus contents significantly increased. The changes in soil properties, in particular to nutrient levels, affected P. halepensis regeneration, mainly the first year after the fire. Greater regeneration occurred in areas affected by moderate fire severity in which the temperatures reached increased the mineralization of soil organic matter with the consequent release of nutrients available for seedling growth. Additionally, moderate fire severity suppressed the regeneration of grasses, reducing the interspecific competition. Heights of seedlings were inversely proportional to the density of grasses. Where the number was abundant (LS), the height was modest; conversely, where the number was low (HS), the greater hypsometric differentiation of pine seedlings was observed. These results suggest that moderate fire severity represents an environmental stress (hormesis) altering microscale conditions to increase pine germination and establishment. The exposure of P. halpensis to a moderate environmental factor that is damaging at higher intensities, induces an adaptive beneficial effect on seedling regeneration. This data can re-evaluate the assertion that coniferous burned areas, if left unmanaged, would remain unproductive for an indefinite period.

Soil characterization is a vital activity to develop appropriate and effective restoration protocols for mine wastelands while insights into the total content of heavy metals in the soil is an important step in estimating the hazards that the metals may pose to the vital roles of soil in the ecosystem. This study addressed the following research questions: (1) To what extent do the physico-chemical characteristics vary between mine waste sediments and the nearby forest soil? (2) Are the concentrations of heavy metals high enough to be considered as toxic? and (3) Are heavy metals present in mine waste sediments potential sources of pollution? We hypothesized that the physico-chemical characteristics of mine waste sediments are less favorably for plant establishment and growth while the concentrations of heavy metals are very high, thus restricting the success of revegetation of mine waste lands. Mine waste sediments were sampled following a diagonal transect across tailings dams, overburden dump sites and the local forest soil from the top layer (0–20 cm) using a closed auger. Samples were analyzed for arsenic, barium, lead, cadmium, cobalt, copper, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and zinc as well as for soil physico-chemical properties. The mine waste sediments were dominated by silt whilst the forest soil by sand particles, with significantly high bulk density in the former. Both the forest soil and overburden sediments were acidic than the alkaline tailings dam sediment. Total organic carbon and nitrogen contents were significantly low in mine wasteland substrates but the concentration of Ca and Mg were significantly higher in tailings dam substrate than the forest soil. The concentrations of available P, K and Na were similar across sites. The mean concentrations of heavy metals were significantly (p < 0.01) higher in mine waste sediments than the forest soil; except for cadmium (p = 0.213). The order of contamination by heavy metals on the tailings was Cu > Co > Ba > Ni > As > Zn > Pb > Cr > V > Cd, and that on the overburdens was Cu > Co > Ba > Ni > Zn > Cr > Pb > V > As > Cd. The pollution load index (PLI) was nearly twice higher for the tailings dam (8.97) than the overburden (5.84). The findings show that the copper mine wastes (the tailings dams and overburden waste rock sites) are highly contaminated by heavy metals; which, in turn, might pose serious hazards to human health and agricultural productivity. In addition, poor macro-nutrient availability, substrate compaction and soil acidity (particularly on overburden sites) coupled with toxic level of heavy metals would be the main challenges for successful phytostabilization of copper mine wastelands.

We evaluated the effects of the number of years of restoration of vegetation on soil microbial community structure and biomass in degraded ecosystems. We investigated the microbial community structure by analyzing their phospholipid fatty acids then examined microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen by chloroform fumigation extraction of restoration soils over several years. The data were compared with those of highly degraded lands and native vegetation sites. The results show that the duration of vegetation on the sites substantially increased microbial biomass and shifted the microbial community structure even after only 4 years. However, microbial communities and biomass did not recover to the status of native vegetation even after 35 years of vegetation cover. A redundancy analysis and Pearson correlation analysis indicated that soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium, soil water content, silt content and soil hardness explained 98.4% of total variability in the microbial community composition. Soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, available potassium and soil water content were positively correlated with microbial community structure and biomass, whereas, soil hardness and silt content were negatively related to microbial community structure and biomass. This study provides new insights into microbial community structure and biomass that influence organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium accumulation, and clay content in soils at different stages of restoration.

Atlantic forest natural soil flora was tested on two leguminous pioneer species Acacia gummifera and Retama monosperma to be used in rehabilitation programs of the coastal sand dunes forest of the Essaouira region. The rhizospheric soil of two endemic plant species: R. monosperma and Juniperus phoenicea was sampled and split into two categories, one from native rhizospheric soil, the other of the sterilized rhizospheric soil. Investigation was focused on mycorrhizal formations, but other forms of beneficial symbiosis such as rhizobia and viable soil microflora were also studied. Growth and nutrition variables assessed included lengths of roots and shoots, number of branches, ratio of root to shoot dry mass and water, nitrogen and phosphorus levels. Results showed important mycorrhizal associations in roots of both plants, presence of nodules and abundance of viable soil microflora. J. phoenicea had a 100% frequency of mycorrhizal formation and an intensity of 80% compared to a frequency of 80% and intensity of 54% for R. monosperma. Nodules had the same density of CFU regardless of the origin. Abundance of viable microflora in rhisospheric soil of R. monosperma, J. phoenicea and the control differed significantly. Among the studied variables for A. gummifera and R. monosperma, nitrogen and phosphorus uptakes significantly wit the use of the nonsterilized rhizospheric soil. Both species doubled their phosphorus uptake when colonized by mycorrhizal species, R. monosperma doubled its nitrogen uptake and A. gummifera increased it by seven times compared with the control. No significant difference was noted for the other variables.

In tropical plantations, nutrients such as nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P) are often applied as management practices. However, the effects of such nutrient additions on topsoil C- and N-acquiring enzymes activities are unclear. In this study, the impacts of fertilization on β-1,4-glucosidase (BG), β-D-cellobiosidase (CBH), β-1,4-xylosidase (BX), β-1,4-N-acetyl-glucosaminidase (NAG), and leucine amino peptidase (LAP) enzymes activities from topsoil and litter layer of two tropical plantations (Acacia auriculiformis and Eucalyptus urophylla) were measured. The results showed that N addition had neutral impact on topsoil enzymes, while significantly elevating the activities of BG, CBH, BX, and NAG in the litter layer. P fertilization had no impacts except for an elevation of NAG in litter sample. There was no interactions found between N and P additions on these enzyme activities. The clearer impacts of N over P fertilization were unexpected because that the study site receives a high rate of atmospheric N deposition, and has low soil P availability. The impact of P fertilization on hydrolytic enzyme activities may be less important compared with that of N.

Population genetics studies are widely recognized for generating useful knowledge for biodiversity conservation. To date, however, little is known about the levels and distribution of genetic diversity of Drymis brasiliensis (Miers LC), a tree species from the Atlantic Rainforest. Therefore, in this study, we investigated how genetic diversity is distributed within and among populations of D. brasiliensis from southern Brazil using allozyme markers to genotype reproductive trees (8 populations) and seedlings (3 populations). Furthermore, in two populations, we established two permanent plots (5.1 and 1 ha) to analyze fine-scale genetic structure (FSGS). Studied populations presented low levels of genetic diversity (reproductive = 0.085; seedlings = 0.054) and high fixation indexes (reproductive = 0.396; seedlings = 0.231). Genetic divergence among populations was equal to 0.05, which is significant, signaling that few populations can conserve large portions of the species total genetic diversity. FSGS was only detected for one population, when reproductive individuals were separated by less than 40 m. Low genetic diversity combined with high fixation indexes clearly signal a risk of losing diversity. Therefore, conservation efforts should be aimed at enhancing gene flow within the studied populations.

Sixteen pongamia families were evaluated in a field experiment for eight consecutive years in dryland conditions to identify stable, high-yielding families. The trial was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Each family, consisting of nine trees per replication, was planted at a spacing of 3 m × 3 m. Yield stability was analyzed using (1) Eberhart and Russel’s regression coefficient (β _i) and deviation from regression (

), (2) Wrike’s ecovalence (

W_i

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); (3) Shukla stability variance (

{\sigma }_i^2

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); and (4) Piepho and Lotito’s stability index (

L_i

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). Families were also analyzed for adaptability and stability using AMMI and GGE biplots graphical methods. The study revealed significant variances due to family and family × year interaction for pod and seed yield. Families performed differently and ranked differently across years. The performance of families was influenced by both genetic factor and environmental conditions in different years. Among families tested, TNMP20, Acc14, TNMP14 and Acc30 were high yielders for pods, and Acc14, Acc30, TNMP6, RAK19 and TNMP14 were high for seed yield. According to the Eberhart and Russell model, Acc30, TNMP14 and TNMP3 were stable across years. In the graphical view of family × year interaction based on AMMI methods, TNMP3, TNMP4 and TNMP14 had greater stability with moderate seed yield, and Acc14 and Acc30 had moderate stability with high seed yield. On the other hand, GGE biplots revealed Acc14, Acc30 and TNMP14 as high yielders with moderate stability. AMMI and GGE biplots were able to capture nonlinear parts of the family × year interaction that were not be captured by the Eberhart and Russel model while also identifying stable families. Based on different methodologies, Acc14, Acc30 and TNMP14 were identified as high yielding and stable families for promoting pongamia cultivation as a biofuel crop for semi-arid regions.

Camptotheac acuminata Decne is a unique tree species in China with an important secondary metabolite, camptothecin (CPT), used in the treatment of cancer. Nitrogen (N) is an important element that affects plant growth and the accumulation of CPT. Reports on the effect of N on CPT synthesis from a genetic perspective are scarce. To explore the effects of different N sources and levels on CPT synthesis in C. acuminata, two-year-old seedlings were fertilized with different concentrations of pure ammonium sulphate, source of ammonium N (NH₄ ⁺–N), and potassium nitrate for nitrate N (NO₃ ⁻–N). Concentrations of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 g pot⁻¹ NH₄ ⁺–N and NO₃ ⁻–N were used. The results showed that 7.5 g NH₄ ⁺–N and NO₃ ⁻–N treatments were best for growth and fresh weight of leaves. Compared with the other treatments, the CPT content, tryptophan synthase and tryptophan decarboxylase activities, and expression of the CaTSB and CaTDC1 genes under the 2.5 g NH₄ ⁺–N and NO₃ ⁻–N treatments peaked significantly at 30 days. However, the expression of CaTDC2 surpassed that of the other two genes at 60 days. Therefore, compared with NH₄ ⁺–N source, the NO₃ ⁻–N source was more beneficial for growth, and NO₃ ⁻–N was better for CPT yield. Consequently, leaves of C. acuminata treated with 2.5 g NO₃ ⁻–N could be harvested after 30 days to obtain maximum CPT content. CaTDC1 is more closely linked to CPT synthesis. The results of this study improved the production of CPT in C. acuminata via fertilization.

Because there are thousands of peach cultivars, cultivar classification is a critical step before starting a breeding project. Various molecular markers such as simple sequence repeats (SSRs) can be used. In this study, 67 polymorphic primers produced 302 bands. Higher values for SI index (1.903) suggested higher genetic variability in the genotype under investigation. Mean values for observed alleles (Na), expected heterozygosity (He), effective alleles (Ne), Nei’s information index (h), and polymorphic information content (PIC) were 4.5, 0.83, 5.45, 0.83, and 0.81, respectively. The dendrogram constructed based on Jaccard’s similarity coefficients outlined four distinct clusters in the entire germplasm. In addition, an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that 70.68% of the total variation was due to within-population variation, while 29.32% was due to variation among populations. According to this research, all primers were successfully used for the peach accessions. The EST-SSR markers should be useful in peach breeding programs and other research.

Agarwood is a non-timber forest product found in tropical rain forests. It is a black and fragrant resin valued for the perfume industry and demand continues to increase. However, the Indonesian agarwood-producing species, Aquilaria malaccensis and Gyrinops versteegii do not automatically produce such quality resin. Bio-induction technology or inoculation using Fusarium solani is usually applied to these species to trigger resin production. This research aims to identify agarwood compounds formed in seedlings and trees of A. malaccensis and G. versteegii after these species were inoculated with the fungus F. solani. The chemical compounds were identified by comparing the patterns of mass spectra fragmentation in the sample and in previous studies. Five groups of agarwood compounds were identified: (1) sesquiterpen group—cis-jasmone and aromadendrenepoxide; (2) chromones group—8-methoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)chromen-4-one and newly-discovered chromone derivative, 7-(benzyloxy)-5-hydroxy-2-methylchromone found only in G. versteegii; (3) aromatic group—benzylacetone, guaiacol, p-ethylguaiacol, phenol, syringaldehyde, vanilin, furfuryl alcohol, and furfural; (4) fatty acid group—palmitic acid, oleic acid, and lauric acid; and, (5) triterpen group—squalene.

Macroscopic fungi on Caucasian alder wood (Alnus subcordata) were identified and tested as a source of betulin and betulinic acid (the most important metabolites of the Betulaceae family) to evaluate levels of phenols, flavonoids and antioxidant activity. Ganoderma applanatum, Lenzites betulina, Trichaptum biforme, Rigidoporus ulamrius, Fomes fomentarius, Schizophyllum commune, Auricularia mesenterica, and Trametes versicolor were among those identified, and they differed significantly in the level of betulin and betulinic acid and phenols, flavonoids and antioxidant properties in fungal tissues extracted with methanol and with ethanol (p ≤ 0.01). G. applanatum had the most betulin (3.642%) and S. commune the most betulinic acid (1.413%). All tested fungi had high antioxidant activity, and L. betulina had the highest (97.775%). The highest amounts of phenol (719.993 mg mL⁻¹) and flavonoids (361.403 mg mL⁻¹) were found in the ethanolic extract from G. applanatum. Considering the results of this study and the low cost and convenient access to these fungi, they should be good sources for producing different drugs.

Siberian apricot (Prunus sibirica L.) is a traditional nut tree species in East Asia and Siberia and is a possible contribution to healthy diets. However, it has attracted little research attention and information on the nutritional value of its kernel is limited. In this study, the profile, nutritional value and variation of amino acids were investigated in eight provenances. The kernels contained 29 × 10⁻² g/g protein and were rich in glutamic acid (26.5%), aspartic acid (11.3%) and arginine (10.1%). They showed higher essential amino acids (EAA) than similar protein values for almonds. The variation coefficients of amino acids ranged from 3.8 to 43.7%, and the levels of seven amino acids were significantly different among the eight provenances. The proportion of essential amino acids to total amino acids and amino acid score were also quite different. Protein was negatively correlated with some amino acids and protein quality values. In conclusion, there were two superior provenances (Wanjiagou and Horinger County) with high EAA contents and protein quality, and could be used in the large-scale development of this species.

In this study, we investigated the preventive effects of emamectin benzoate 9.7% SL, which was newly developed to reduce the injection volume and number of injection holes required to protect against pine wood nematode. None of the Pinus thunbergii trees injected with emamectin benzoate 9.7% SL at 0.3 mL/cm diameter at breast height (DBH) died within 2 years of inoculation with pine wood nematodes. Emamectin benzoate 9.7% SL injected at 0.6 mL/cm DBH resulted in no tree mortality for 3 years. Mean residue of emamectin benzoate 9.7% SL in pine twigs injected with 0.3 mL/cm DBH was 0.490 μg/g at 1 year after injection and 0.303 μg/g after 2 years. These residues values are greater than 0.031 μg/g, previously determined IC₉₅ value for emamectin benzoate against the pine wood nematode. Our field experiment and residue analysis showed that emamectin benzoate 9.7% SL could be a substitute agent for emamectin benzoate 2.15% EC, which is widely used to prevent pine wood nematode in the field and that injection volume and number of injection holes can be greatly educed using this new formulation, which will reduce injury to the cambium, interruption of water movement, and infection of inoculation wounds by wood-decay or blue stain fungi.

Eleven species of the Noctuidae [Polia hepatica (Clerck, 1759), P. malchani (Draudt, 1934), P. vespertilio (Draudt, 1934), Lasionycta skraelingia (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852), L. hospita A. Bang-Haas, 1912; Xestia kolymae (Herz, 1903), X. albuncula (Eversmann, 1851), X. subgrisea (Staudinger, 1897), X. penthima (Erschoff, 1870), X. sincera (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851), and X. rhaetica (Staudinger, 1871)] of the boreal faunal complex are reported for the first time from China. Illustrations of adults and the genitalia of both sexes are provided. Information on these newly recorded species, original descriptions, type-locality, synonyms, references, host plants and bionomics are provided.

In tropical and subtropical forest ecosystems, cavities formed by decay processes are a key but scarce resource for birds that nest and roost in them, which makes them a highly sensitive group to logging. The piedmont forest of northwestern Argentina is a complex ecosystem with 113 tree and 120 bird species. It has high logging pressure on the few, well-conserved forest remnants, complicating the delineation of sustainable management guidelines for each tree or bird species in a short time. Our objective was to reduce the complexity of subtropical forests by grouping tree species according to the characteristics used by secondary cavity-nesting birds (i.e. non excavators). In the piedmont forest, 50 plots of 0.25 ha were sampled to record cavity trees and cavity characteristics. These were then used in a cluster analysis to form tree groups. Additionally, cavities were searched to identify the bird species using the decay-formed cavities. A total of 187 cavity trees, comprising 23 tree species, were recorded, and these formed four tree groups or clusters. We recorded 86 cavities that were used by secondary cavity-nesting bird species. The four tree groups were unequally used by secondary cavity nesters. The tree group that included valuable timber species (Myroxylon peruiferum, Anadenanthera colubrina and Calycophyllum multiflorum) and had the greatest cavity availability represented 71% of total cavity use. Another tree group with valuable timber species (Cedrela balansae and Amburana cearensis), measured > 73 cm DBH and > 21 m tall, had cavity entrances > 0.10 cm², and contributed 14% of all cavity use by birds. A third group had no highly economically valuable tree species, and included the snag category (i.e. standing dead trees) as well as a 15% of cavity use. The fourth tree group had a DBH < 0.40 cm, only one highly economically valuable tree species (Cordia trichotoma), and supported no cavity use. The clustering of subtropical trees can reduce the complexity of these forests, hence easing their management by focusing on those groups with tree species showing similar characteristics and providing suitable nesting sites for secondary cavity-nesting birds.

Sodium fluoride (NaF) and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) are well-known fungicides for preventing and remediating decay in wood and wood structures, due to their excellent diffusion properties in wood. The efficacy of both compounds against drywood termites is, however, inadequately studied; there is a lack of information on the development of proper protection and control methods against drywood termites using these diffusible chemicals. In this study, the threshold values of fluoride and boron against drywood and subterranean termites and decay and mold fungi were assessed in laboratory conditions. Treated Cryptomeria japonica D. Don (sugi) sapwood specimens with four different concentrations of NaF and DOT applied by either dipping or vacuum processes were subjected to attack by drywood termites, Incisitermes minor (Hagen) for 6 weeks. Treated specimens were also tested against subterranean termites, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki for 3 weeks. Laboratory decay and mold resistance tests were then performed to determine the efficacy of the compounds against fungal attack. Results showed 80% or greater drywood termite mortality in wood specimens treated with NaF at a retention level of 1.7 kg m⁻³ or more. In DOT treated groups, higher retention levels (greater than 6.8 kg m⁻³) were needed to reach up to 80% or more termite mortality. In general, weight losses in NaF-treated specimens were slightly lower than those in DOT-treated ones. Retention levels of around 1.2 kg m⁻³ for NaF and 1.6 kg m⁻³ for DOT were high enough to reach the JIS K 1571 threshold requirement of weight loss less than 3% in subterranean termite resistance tests. Slightly higher termite mortality values were seen in the DOT than NaF treatments at respective retention levels. In decay resistance tests, no weight losses were seen at a NaF retention level of 2.3 kg m⁻³; however, a retention level of nearly 4 kg m⁻³ for DOT was needed for complete protection against both test fungi. In most cases, lower weight losses were obtained in NaF-treated specimens when compared to DOT. In mold resistance tests, neither NaF nor DOT at even the highest retention level was able to completely inhibit mold growth on the surfaces of treated specimens.

This study assessed the life cycle of biocomposites with antioxidants by repeated processing. The effects of antioxidants on the life cycle of wood flour/polypropylene (PP) composites were determined by analyzing their mechanical and thermal properties. The composites were repeatedly processed for seven times with pelletizing and extruding. An antioxidant, pentaerythritoltetrakys 3-(3,5-ditert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl) propionate, was used. The mechanical strength of the biocomposites decreased after reprocessing. Fourier transformed infrared analysis showed that thermo-oxidative aging occurred during reprocessing. The thermal performance of the resulting composites decreased because of reprocessing. Wood flour/PP has a long lifetime and antioxidants can slow the thermo-oxidative and mechanical degradation during reprocessing.

Thirteen-year growth response of ponderosa pine to various manipulations of understory vegetation was studied to determine if a threshold of understory cover can be established for plantation productivity and whether nitrogen-fixing Ceanothus species benefit plantation growth compared to non N-fixing Arctostaphylos species, given their ability to improve site fertility. Results showed that completely controlling competing vegetation increased plantation growth, as was universally expected, but the effects of partial shrub control on plantation performance was inconsistent. We did not find a benefit of nitrogen-fixing shrubs on tree growth, as young plantation growth was slightly better in the non N-fixing plots compared to the N-fixing plots due to differences in shrub cover. An understory cover threshold for tree growth was not observed. Due to the overriding effect of shrub competition, controlling herbaceous species had little effect on plantation growth even though it benefited tree seedling survival. A long-term value of N-fixing shrubs at these sites, if there is one, must be balanced by successful plantation establishment and rapid early growth.

Betula utilis D. Don. is an important species of alpine Himalaya and forms the major treeline component of western Himalaya. The different populations of B. utilis are declining and are under high risk. In the present study, novel expressed sequence tag–simple sequence repeat (EST–SSR) primers were developed from expressed sequence tag (EST) data of different Betula species. Of the 10,796 designed primers, the percentages of di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexa-repeats were 36%, 35%, 15%, 5.5% and 7.7%, respectively. For validation, 50 primers were synthesized randomly and were characterized in 20 different B. utilis accessions from north-western Himalaya. Of these, 45 primers amplified fragments in a range of 1–6. The 24 polymorphic primers produced 111 fragments in aggregate with 4.6 fragments on average. Polymorphism information content (PIC) ranged from 0.288 in marker BUMS-24 to 0.497 in BUMS-3 and BUMS-7, with an average of 0.447 among polymorphic markers. Dendrogram based on Jaccard’s similarity coefficient and UPGMA method showed that newly developed SSR markers distinguished twenty accessions of B. utilis into two groups. As no SSR markers were available in this species, the newly developed markers will foster molecular genetics research and conservation efforts for this species.