Today, shisham plantations in Punjab, Pakistan face major constraints, especially dieback disease. This article reviews the multidisciplinary team work by forest and plant pathologists and economists to resolve the confusions in the pathology of dieback disease. It is intended to be of practical use to the foresters and plant pathologists reporting on this issue.

The allelopathic potential of Rhus chinensis Mill on seedling growth of radish (Raphanus sativus L.), semen cassiae (seed of Cassia obtusifolia L.) and black soyabean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] was investigated under laboratory conditions. The water extracts of seed, leaf and bark of R. chinensis inhibited the germination and the growth of roots and shoots of radish, semen cassiae, and black soyabean. Significant increasing reductions in the germination and growth of roots and shoots were observed as the concentration of water extract increased in all bioassays. The order of allelopathic potentials of the three parts from R. chinensis plant on seed germination of these receptors was leaf > seed > bark. However, the inhibition of water extracts from R. chinensis seed on root activity of semen cassiae was more severe than from the other two parts. The allelopathic potential on the germination of radish was higher than that of black soyabean and semen cassiae. The integrated effect index for allelopathic potential of water extracts of leaf of R. chinensis on radish, semen cassiae and black soyabean seedling growth were −0.88, −0.93 and −0.98 respectively. The results suggested that it is important to minimize the negative allelopathic potential of R. chinensis in agroforestry systems, and to exploit this traditional Chinese medicinal tree for the production of natural bio-pesticides.

We calculated a self-thinning exponent of 1.05 for tree mass using the 3/2 power equation in 93 Cunninghamia lanceolata plots. According to Weller’s allometric model, the self-thinning exponent for tree mass was calculated as 1.28 from the allometric exponents θ and δ. The both self-thinning exponents were significantly lower than 3/2. The self-thinning exponent of organs was estimated to be 1.42 for stems, 0.93 for branches, 0.96 for leaves, 1.35 for roots and 1.28 for shoots, respectively. The self-thinning exponent of stem mass was not significantly different from 3/2, whereas thinning exponents of trees, branches, leaves and roots were significantly lower than 3/2. The stand leaf mass and stand branch mass were constant regardless of the stand density. The scaling relations among branch, leaf, stem, root and shoot mass ($ \overline{M}_{B} $, $ \overline{M}_{L} $, $ \overline{M}_{S} $, $ \overline{M}_{R} $ and $ \overline{M}_{A} $, respectively) showed that $ \overline{M}_{B} $ and $ \overline{M}_{L} $ scaled as the 3/4 power of $ \overline{M}_{S} $, whereas $ \overline{M}_{S} $ or $ \overline{M}_{A} $ scaled isometrically with respect to $ \overline{M}_{R} $.

This study describes the different parameters used to derive the allometric equation for calculating the biomass of an invasive woody shrub Lantana camara L. from the subtropical conditions of western Himalaya. It identifies the most accurate and convenient method for biomass calculation by comparing destructive with non-destructive methodology. Different parameters were measured on a wide range of Lantana from different community levels for the non-destructive calculation of total above-ground biomass. Different explanatory variables were identified and measured such as basal diameter either as a single independent variable or in combination with plant height. The other suitable combinations of available independent variables include crown length, crown width, crown area, crown volume and coverage of the plant. Amongst the wide range of allometric equations used with different variables, the equation with D²H as a variable was found to be the most suitable estimator of biomass calculation for Lantana. Sahastradhara, being the most disturbed area due to its high tourist activity round the year, showed maximum coverage (58.57 % ha⁻¹), highest biomass (13,559.60 kg ha⁻¹) and carbon density (6,373.01 kg ha⁻¹) of Lantana. The degree of Lantana’s invasiveness in subtropical conditions was also calculated on the basis of importance value index (IVI). The maximum IVI (22.77) and mean coverage (26.8 % ha⁻¹) was obtained from the areas near Jolly Grant airport, indicating that physically disturbed areas are more suitable for the growth of Lantana, which may significantly increase shrub biomass. The importance of incorporating allometric equations in calculation of shrub biomass, and its role in atmospheric carbon assimilation has thus been highlighted through the findings of this study.

Trees in cities play a valuable public health role for they are able to use photosynthesis to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂), which is then stored as tree biomass. The present study compared the potential for carbon storage in the aboveground tree biomass of 3-year-old specimens of Barringtonia racemosa, Cyclobalanopsis glauca, and Alnus formosana grown in Chiayi City, Taiwan. Assessment of the carbon storage of avenue trees was based on measurement of the photosynthetic rate and leaf area, as well as the biomass of timbers, from October 2008 to 2009. Based on photosynthetic rates and leaf area, the estimated carbon stocks of B. racemosa, C. glauca, and A. formosana are 756, 615, and 2738 kg Cha⁻¹ a⁻¹, respectively. In addition, carbon storage can be estimated based on timber volume, and these results are 1170, 720, and 1995 kg Cha⁻¹ a⁻¹ for B. racemosa, C. glauca, and A. formosana, respectively. Based on these findings, A. formosana has the highest carbon fixation potential of these three trees. Although the photosynthetic rate measurements can provide detailed data on the diurnal changes in carbon stocks, this requires more time and labor. In contrast, timber volume measurements provide a rapid and convenient way to estimate carbon stocks.

We examined the carbon stock and rate of carbon sequestration in a tropical deciduous forest dominated by Dipterocarpus tuberculatus in Manipur, North East India. Estimation of aboveground biomass was determined by harvest method and multiplied with density of tree species. The aboveground biomass was between 18.27–21.922 t ha⁻¹ and the carbon stock ranged from 9.13 to 10.96 t C ha⁻¹ across forest stands. Aboveground biomass and carbon stock increased with the increase in tree girth. The rate of carbon sequestration varied from 1.4722 to 4.64136 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ among the dominant tree species in forest stands in tropical deciduous forest area. The rate of carbon sequestration depends on species composition, the density of large trees in different girth classes, and anthropogenic disturbances in the present forest ecosystem. Further work is required to identify tree species having the highest potential to sequester CO₂ from the atmosphere, which could lead to recommendations for tree plantations in a degraded ecosystem.

Heavy metal contamination is one of the most important abiotic stresses affecting physiological activities of plants. We investigated the effects of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) on chlorophyll fluorescence (F_v/F_m, F_o, and F_m), photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a and b), and proline in one-year-old seedlings of Robinia pseudoacacia. The seedlings were treated twice over a period of 10 days with Cd and Pb at concentrations of 0, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 mg L⁻¹. Saline solution containing Cd and Pb was sprayed on the leaves. Chlorophyll and proline contents were measured after 10 days. Chlorophyll fluorescence of R. pseudoacacia was affected slightly by high concentrations (1000, 2000 mg L⁻¹) of Cd and Pb. Chlorophyll a and a/b increased at 1000 and 2000 mg L⁻¹ of Cd and proline content of leaves was similar in all treatments of Cd and Pb. Our results indicated that photosynthetic sensitivity of R. pseudoacacia to Cd and Pb contamination was weak. Photosystem II chlorophyll pigments were not damaged by Pb and Cd stress. We conclude that chlorophyll fluorescence along with chlorophyll and proline contents are useful indicators of Cd and Pb stresses in R. pseudoacacia which widely planted in urban polluted regions in Iran.

Investigations were made to determine the nature and extent of variations present for 10 morphological characters of cone, seed and seedlings of 17 plus trees (PTs) of Pinus kesiya growing in eastern Himalayas (Meghalaya state) of India. The significant variations has been observed in cone weight, cone length, cone diameter, seed length, seed diameter, seed weight, number of seeds per cone, seed germination, seedling height and seedling collar diameter among different PTs of the species. Significant positive correlation (p < 0.01) between seed weight, cone length and cone diameter showed that seed weight in P. kesiya depend more on the cone size. Seed germination is found positively correlated (p < 0.01) with seed weight, seed diameter, cone size and number of seeds per cone in the study. Among geographical factors, latitude and altitude are found positively correlated (p < 0.05) with cone weight and seed diameter, respectively. The genetic parameters for seed, cone and seedlings of PTs of P. kesiya also showed a wide range of variability in terms of variance, coefficient of variability, broad sense heritability, genetic advance and genetic gain. Seed weight, seeds per cone and seedling diameter showed high heritability values (>75) coupled with maximum genetic gain. Traits with such values indicate the presence of good amount of heritable additive components and are under strong genetic control. The findings of the study revealed that PTs expressed both phenotypic and genotypic differences in the seed, cone and seedling characters, which may be attributed to the differences in genetic makeup of various PTs and environmental factors i.e. genotypic and environmental interaction. The presence of high variability in P. kesiya PTs for different characters provide further opportunities to improve the population in subsequent generations so as to establish this species as an important timber tree to be grown on less fertile and degraded soils in its distributional ranges.

Sesbania virgata (Cav.) Pers. is a pioneer species native to South America able to release allelochemicals that affect germination and development of other plant species. The aim of this work was to evaluate the allelopathic effect of S. virgata on the germination and development of co-occurring species from gallery forest and on agronomic species. Two forest native species, Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell.) Morong and Sapindus saponaria L., and two agronomic species (these as control), Oryza sativa L. and Solanum lycopersicum L. were used in the lab and greenhouse assays with seeds and leaf extracts of S. virgata. Agronomic species were more affected than native species when co-germinated with seeds of S. virgata. The germination percentage and speed germination index of the agronomic species were reduced in both in vitro and greenhouse assays. In the same assays, the seeds of native species showed no significant differences in the parameters mentioned. However, the initial growth of the four species assayed was affected, with reduction in plant length and shoot diameter followed by significant reduction in plantlet shoot and root weights. In the assays with irrigation of S. virgata leaf extracts, no significant inhibitory effects on germination were observed for all species. Height and shoot diameter of the native species were not affected by the leaf extracts, nor were fresh and dry weights. However, these parameters increased in the agronomic species as they were irrigated with leaf extracts. Based on our data we conclude that seed leachates of S. virgata affect germination and seedling development of other species, suggesting that its invasive behavior is due mainly to seed allelochemicals. Although with less pronounced effects on native species, allelopathy of S. virgata might also influence Interspecific competition in its natural environment.

The Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) is a frequent component of agroforestry systems in the Amazon because of its adaptation to nutrient-poor upland soils and multiple uses. We investigated the aboveground biomass production (kg dry weight), nutrient uptake and requirements (N, P, Ca, Mg, K) of Brazil nut trees of different sizes grown under agroforestry conditions and fertilized at different levels. Eight of 70 experimental trees with different size were harvested and stem, branches and leaves were separated. Nutrient contents were determined for three trees of varying size. Average tree growth was fast, but variability was high, suggesting considerable potential for the improvement of this economically important species. The trees responded to increased levels of fertilizer and lime with significantly increased foliar nutrient contents and growth, probably because of the improved availability of Mg and Ca for which the species seems to have a relatively high demand. In contrast to Brazil nut trees grown in forest or dense plantations, the agroforestry trees invested a substantial part of their biomass and nutrients in large branches and developed spreading crowns. To improve stem form, reduce competition with associated crops for light and recycle nutrients, regular pruning of lower branches or planting arrangements that favor self-pruning are recommended. These measures would also increase the recycling of Ca and Mg, large quantities of which are contained in the branches.

The present study was carried out at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Nineteen clones of Eucalyptus spp. were evaluated for tolerance to gall wasp. The total number of galls per plant were recorded at 1 month after planting (MAP) and the number of galls per branch were recorded at 4 and 7 MAP. Gall wasp incidence (number of galls) was recorded on a whole plant basis during the seedling stage and the number of galls were recorded from the upper, middle and lower crown places at 4 and 7 MAP. Categorization was done on the basis of relative gall-wasp damage by keeping in view the total number of galls per plant and branch (leaves and petiole). No clone was found free from gall damage. Clones C-526, P-23 and P-103 were the least attacked by the gall wasp. Incidence as indicated by number of galls caused by Leptocybe invasa on eucalypts was higher in March than in December.

Single sequence repeat (SSR) multiplexing is a semi high-throughput PCR methodology for the analysis of multiple SSRs. We developed two SSR multiplexes selected from SSR loci previously reported in the pine literature and tested the transferability of both SSR multiplexes in nine other pine species. We tested 234 nuclear SSR loci (nSSRs) previously described in the pine literature and selected ten nSSRs following the simple criteria of interpretability and reproducibility. Selected nuclear loci were divided into two nSSRs multiplex sets and their amplification was optimized for three different multiplex PCR methods based on: (a) a custom PCR protocol, (b) a custom protocol with hotstart taq polymerase, and (c) a commercially available kit for SSR multiplexing. To validate their performance, the level of genetic diversity was assessed in three Scots pine natural populations (Hungary, northern Sweden and southern Sweden). In addition, we also tested the transferability of these multiplexes in nine other pine species. We have developed two nSSRs multiplexes of five loci each that will contribute to reduce the costs of nSSR scoring, while increasing the capacity of nSSR loci analysis. Amplification was successful in all three populations (94 % success) and the level of polymorphism (7.1 alleles/marker) was similar to that previously reported for other Scots pine natural populations. Transferability of both multiplexes was successful for those pine species closely related to Scots pine.

Madhuca latifolia Macb. commonly known as Indian butter tree, is an open-pollinated plant. Improvement in seed and oil yields depends on the progress in the desired characters in the base material and the genetic variability available in the collected germplasm. We evaluated 23 genotypes of M. latifolia to understand genetic variability, character association and divergence in seed traits and oil content for use in breeding programs. Variation was recorded in seed length (27.3–38.6 mm), seed breadth (15.6–19.1 mm), two dimensional (2D) surface area (328.3–495.4 mm²), 100 seed weight (216.8–285.3 g), acid value (13.4–25.8 mg KOH/g), iodine number (62.4–78.6) and oil content (37.8–51.0 %). High estimates of genotypic coefficient of variation, broad sense heritability and genetic gain were observed for seed oil content. Variability studies for seed traits revealed that genotype CPT-16 had the highest 100-seed weight (281.5 g) and oil content (51 %). Highly significant genotypic and phenotypic correlations were observed. The 100-seed weight was positively and significantly correlated with oil content at both phenotypic (r = 0.57) and genotypic (r = 0.60) levels. Cluster analysis of the scores of the first three principle components (80.83 %) resulted in four clusters, consisting of 4, 7, 3 and 9 genotypes in the first, second, third and fourth clusters, respectively. Cluster 3 was distinguished from others based on significantly higher means for most seed traits except seed breadth, acid value, iodine number and oil content. Cluster 1 appeared more divergent as it had significantly higher means for acid value and iodine number. A comparative assessment of means of the four clusters for 100-seed weight and oil content suggested that cluster 3 would be useful for higher 100-seed weight and oil content. Hence these genotypes, CPT-3, CPT-6 and CPT-15 in cluster 3 can be used for direct selection and utilization in breeding programs.

The purpose of this study was to classify current forest cover types, and to investigate stand development patterns for natural forests in six areas in northern Baekdudaegan, South Korea. Twenty-eight independent forest communities were aggregated into eight forest cover types by species composition in the overstory of each forest community. The forest cover types were of mixed mesophytic, “others” deciduous, Quercus mongolica dominant, Q. mongolica pure, Pinus densiflora–Q. mongolica, P. densiflora, Betula ermanii, and Q. mongolica–P. koraiensis. The ecological information was organized by importance value and species diversity for each forest type. Based on the correlation between species diversity index and the abundance of Q. mongolica plus P. densiflora for corresponding forest cover types, we compared the developmental process and approximate successional pathway between each cover type. The P. densiflora forest cover type changes into the P. densiflora–Q. mongolica cover type, followed by the Q. mongolica dominant cover type through continuous invasion of the oak trees. Furthermore, the Q. mongolica pure cover type would spread toward the Q. mongolica dominant cover type with a mixture of various deciduous tree species. The Q. mongolica dominant cover type progresses through the other deciduous cover types to the mixed mesophytic cover type with diversified composition and structure. On the mid to lower slopes, with loamy soils and good moisture conditions, various deciduous forest types should progress, by ecological succession, toward the mixed mesophytic cover type without any further disturbance.

We investigated non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) levels and components (starch, glucose, fructose and sucrose) in the leaves of three typical co-occurring forest-floor plants, moss Eurhynchium savatieri (ES), fern Parathelypteris nipponica (PN) and forb Aruncus sylvester (AS) in a 30-year-old Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis) plantation forest on the eastern Tibetan Plateau. We also explored their responses to three gap creation treatments (control and two gap creations of 80 and 110 m²) based on NSC levels. PN had the highest leaf NSC level of the three plants, with AS second and ES lowest. Starch was the predominant component of NSC and the contents of glucose were higher than those of fructose or sucrose for all three species. The NSC level of ES in intermediate gaps was significantly higher than at control sites. PN also had higher NSC levels in both small and intermediate gaps than in control sites. But the differences between treatments were not obvious for AS. Our results suggest that ES and PN benefit from gap formation while the two species have different NSC response sensitivities to gap size, but the leaf NSC level of AS is less sensitive to the disturbance.

To characterize effects of plant roots on preferential flow (PF), we measured root length density (RLD) and root biomass (RB) in Jiufeng National Forest Park, Beijing, China. Comparisons were made for RLD and RB between soil preferential pathways and soil matrices. RLD and RB declined with the increasing soil depth (0–10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–40, 40–50, 50–60 cm) in all experimental plots. RLD was greater in soil preferential pathways than in the surrounding soil matrix and was 69.5, 75.0 and 72.2 % for plant roots of diameter (d) <1, 1 < d < 3 and 3 < d < 5 mm, respectively. Fine root systems had the most pivotal influence on soil preferential flow in this forest ecosystem. In all experimental plots, RB content was the sum of RB from soil preferential pathways and the soil matrix in each soil depth. With respect to 6 soil depth gradient (0–10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–40, 40–50, 50–60 cm) in each plot, the number of soil depth gradient that RB content was greater in soil preferential pathways than in the soil matrix was characterized, and the proportion was 68.2 % in all plots.

We propose an eco-service provision unit method for estimating the benefit and spatial differences of forests in controlling soil erosion. A total of 197 eco-service provision units were grouped on 1424.43 km² of forest according to differences in vegetation, slope, soil, and rainfall. The amount of soil conservation and its economic value were estimated. The forests in Anji County prevent 4.08 × 10⁵ tons of soil from eroding annually, thereby avoiding 1.36 × 10⁴ tons of nutrient loss (on-site cost) and preventing 149 tons of nutritive elements from entering water systems (off-site cost). From an economic perspective, the soil nutrient conservation in the forests of Anji County generated an annual benefit of 43.37 million RMB (Chinese Currency, 6.20 RMB = US$1). On average, each hectare of ecological forest contributed up to 436 RMB annually because of soil conservation. Ecological complexes with higher rainfall intensity, such as broadleaf forest and red soil on slope gradients >25°, contributed the highest soil conservation benefits. This study identified and quantified the dominant contributors and magnitudes of soil conservation provided by forests. This information can benefit decision making regarding differentiated ecological compensation policies.

Tropical forests contain many tree species that have supplied edible fruits for centuries. These fruits have contributed to human diets due to their richness in nutrients, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and their low anti-nutrients content. We investigated the antioxidant, nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of Garcinia kola and Chrysophyllum albidum fruit parts. The nutritional, anti-nutritional and antioxidant compositions differed depending on the fruit part. Irrespective of fruit part, moisture content was high (72–93 %). While the edible part (fruit pulp) of C. albidum proved a better source of protein (4), fibre (17 %) and fat (2 %), the seed kernel was a better source of ash (2 %) and carbohydrate (15 %). Carbohydrate (22 %), protein (2 %), fat (1 %) and fibre (3 %) were higher in G. kola seed kernel (edible part) than in the pulp and pod. Anti-nutrient content in G. kola and C. albidum fruits was low, indicating that their consumption would not pose nutritional or health problems. The antioxidant compositions (especially phenolic content (10–21 mg·g⁻¹) and DPPH (1,1-diphenyl–2 picrylhydrazyl) (26–55 %)) of C. albidum fruit pulp and G. kola seed kernel were high, implying that they could be good sources of natural antioxidants and could be used as supplements in food manufacturing.

Wildfires in recent years have resulted in degradation and damage to the Hyrcanian forest ecosystems in Northern Iran. This study was carried out to investigate fire damage to trees and changes in regeneration in early-season growth after wildfires in the Golestan Province. For this purpose, a random sampling plan was used, with 60 circular plots (each plot is 1000 m²) for each stand and 240 circular (25 m²) plots for regeneration within the burned and unburned areas, respectively. In each plot, habitat factors were recorded, including crown canopy percentage, forest stratum, herb-layer cover percentage, species, diameter at breast height, tree and regeneration quality, and quantity of seedlings and saplings. Our results showed that bark is an important factor for fire resistance in Hyrcanian forests. The Persian ironwood and European yew has the highest and lowest fire resistance; as broad leave species are more resistant than needle leaf species. Density of regeneration in unburned area was higher than burned area, and statistical analysis showed significant differences for all species between two areas. Fire effects on sapling were different among species which indicates sapling has different resistance to fire. Forest floor fuel, season, stand composition and microclimate have more effects on fire severity while environmental factors, regeneration and management practices shaping future composition stands.

Based on 120 stem discs collected during 3 months of fieldwork along a 12 km route, the history of fires in the Wari Maro Forest (09°10′0 N–02°10′0E) over the past century in savanna woodland and dry forest was reconstituted. Three major ecological areas are characterized: one highly burnt zone located between two relative less burnt areas. By analyzing tree rings, 246 fire scars were identified. The scars were caused by 51 fire years, occurring at a mean interval of 2.23 years. From 1890 to 1965, only 6 years with fires were recorded from sampled trees. Since 1966, no year has passed without fire. The fire frequency point scale reached 14 years. This was the case of Burkea africana, which has been identified as a species tolerant to fire and could be planted to create a natural firewall. In contrast, Anogeissus leiocarpa is highly sensitive to fire, and in a dry forest ecosystem that burns seasonally, it requires a special conservation plan. Two new concepts are described: the rebarking of trees after fire and Mean Kilometer Fire Interval. The first concept was tested with Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch & Dalz trees, and the second concept was used to evaluate spatial fire distribution. We demonstrate that savanna woodland and dry forest were subject to a degradation process caused by destructive fires related to vegetation cover clearance and illegal logging.

Precautions against forest fires, a significant element in the prevention and reduction of natural disasters in China, are very important to the development of public emergency systems, as well as to the safety of forest resources, ecology, people’s lives and properties. The USA has extensive experience in forest fire management, which has been widely accepted and used by other countries. The precautions taken by China and the USA to prevent forest fires have been compared in a great number of previous studies. However, most of the studies have focused merely on fire extinguishing technologies and management methods; they have lacked a comparative study on the legal aspects of management. This paper will consider five distinct aspects related to forest fire management between China and the USA and will analyze the similarities and differences as well as study other features to facilitate work related to precautions against forest fires in China.

This paper contains the revision of the genus Inouenola László, Ronkay & Witt, 2010 and presents the checklist of the known taxa and their distribution and the description of six new species (Inouenola brunneolineata, I. tertia, I. secunda, I. prima, I. micropuncta, and I. nigropunctata spp. n.) from South East Asia, with 24 colour photos and 18 genitalia figures.

In recent decades, the consequences of habitat fragmentation have been of growing concern, because it is particularly important to understand how fragmentation may affect biodiversity, an ecological service. We tested two hypotheses: (1) that natural fragment size in agricultural landscapes indirectly affects the herbivore through effects on natural predator populations; and (2) predator activity into the crop reduces along the distance from the natural fragment edge. From 2008 and 2009, we conducted our study in seven forest remnants and in surrounding coffee plantations (fragments ranged from 6 to 105 ha, mean 49.28 ± 36.60 ha) in Southern Minas Gerais, Brazil. Birds were sampled by point counts, and insect predation was evaluated by using an artificial insect model (Koh and Menge 2006). Our results suggest that although there were many potential predators (e.g., wasps, ants, birds, and mammals), birds were the most important taxon unit. The covariance analysis supported the hypothesis that patch size affected the number of larvae predation by overall taxi, but there was no support for a distance effect. These findings suggest that natural enemies’ ecological service (mainly from birds) declined with remnant reduction, which has implications not only for human welfare, but also in strengthening the economic justifications for conserving the remaining natural habitats and biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.

The fungi have wide distribution in ecosystems and can be found colonizing various substrates, where they act as efficient decomposers, participating in cycling of nutrients. The present study aimed to assess the diversity, richness and composition of filamentous fungi in leaf litter and aerial litter in a semi-deciduous forest in the Chapada Diamantina, Bahia, Brazil. Samples of leaf litter and aerial litter were collected monthly from October/2009 to September/2010 in eight installments in the studied area. Those samples were washed, placed in moist chambers and incubated. 47 taxa were identified, 37 in leaf litter and 35 in aerial litter, with 25 species common to both. A similarity of 69 % according to Sorensen index. The similarity was considered low when the sample points were compared to the same litter. Most fungi showed sporadic intervals.

We produced wood–plastic composite board by using sawmill wastage of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) wood and low density polyethylene. We used multi-response optimization to optimize the process parameters of composite board production including mixing ratio, fire retardant (%) and pressing time (min). We investigated the effects of these three process parameters in the mechanical and physical properties of the composite board. Afterwards, Box–Behnken design was performed as response surface methodology with desirability functions to attain the optimal level of mixing ratio, fire retardant and pressing time (min). The maximum modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) were achieved at the optimal conditions of wood plastic mixing ratio of 60:40, pressing time of 9 min and zero fire retardant percentage. The optimized MOR and MOE were 13.12 and 1,781.0 N mm⁻², respectively.

We studied the effects of nanoparticles of organo-silane (NOS) compounds in the size range of 20–80 nm on physical and mechanical properties in medium density fiberboard, and used NOS at four consumption levels of 0, 50, 100, and 150 g kg⁻¹ dry wood fibers. Density of all treatments was kept constant at 0.67 g cm⁻³. The water-repellent property of organo-silane significantly reduced water absorption (WA) and thickness swelling but mechanical properties declined due to the reduced proportion of wood-fiber as organo-silane was added to the matrix: the compression ratio of MDF panels and the integrity among wood-fibers both declined, resulting in reduced mechanical properties. We recommend use of 50 g of NOS/kg wood-fiber to improve WA and thickness swelling while retaining acceptable mechanical properties.

We compared the chemical components and essential oils of ancient buried Zhennan (Phoebe zhennan) wood with those in samples from living trees. After removal of the carbon layer the recovered Zhennan exhibited a dark green color, which differed from the yellow color of the living samples. Low molecular weight components (including hot-water and toluene-alcohol extractives), hemicellulose, and 1 % NaOH solubility in the recovered wood were greatly degraded. Degradation of cellulose was minor. Moreover, the ancient wood had somewhat more klason lignin than the modern wood. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis gave further evidence on the differences in chemical components. According to the GC–MS results, naphthalene derivatives were detected in the essential oils from both the modern and recovered wood. The delicate fragrance of the modern and recovered wood may be attributed to the aromatic constituents as identified by GC–MS.

We used paper mill sludge (PMS) to substitute for part of the wood fibers (WF) used to reinforce high density polyethylene (HDPE). The resulting composites were subjected to xenon-arc weathering. The composite filled with limited PMS (under 10 %) had mechanical properties and aging resistance similar to those without PMS. The composites containing more PMS faded and cracked more readily than those without PMS. Based on the carbonyl index, crystallinity, and wood index, PMS appeared to accelerate the degradation of composites during weathering. Adding PMS to WF–HDPE composites reduced the weathering resistance, and this reduction was not significant if the PMS content did not exceed 20 % of the wood fibers. Therefore, PMS could be used as a reinforcement in wood-plastic composites at levels less than 20 % of the wood fiber content.

We experimentally tested under radial compressive loads and statistically analyzed rings constructed from spruce wood and reinforced with glass fiber. We used the Weibull distribution in statistical analysis, and tested five types of rings including unreinforced and composite reinforced (CR) as wound around the ring, oriented as two layers at angles of 45°, 60°, 75° and 90° to the column axis. We calculated 95 % reliability of load carrying capacity of the rings by Weibull distribution. The highest load carrying capacity was obtained with CR rings at 60° to the axial axis of the ring. Load carrying capacities of rings at CR90, CR75, CR60 and CR45 were 137, 192, 215 and 126 % greater, respectively, than unreinforced rings. For unreinforced rings, failures resulted from catastrophic breaking of wood materials. None of the reinforced rings failed catastrophically because the outer surface of the rings was reinforced with glass–epoxy composite fiber. Cracks began at the core of the materials under the composite layer for all specimens and resulted in failure of the rings.

We studied the damage caused to unfelled trees during skidding operations in four beech stands of northern and central Greece that were managed under differing harvesting systems. After timber was harvested we recorded and analyzed all damage to a width of 2 m along both sides of the skid trails. The percentage of damaged residual trees was 17–28 %. Higher numbers of saplings were uprooted or destroyed in parts of the stands with high natural regeneration. Most damaged trees suffered 1.33–1.90 wounds that were inflicted up to a height of 1 m above ground level. At all sites mean wound sizes were large, 89–1190 cm², and caused elevated risk of future fungal infection. The damage caused by skidding during timber harvesting can be minimized by better planning the harvest operations, and training forest workers in reduced impact logging.