Research on the knee region of cosmic ray by using a novel type of electron−neutron detector array

Abstract

By accurately measuring composition and energy spectrum of cosmic ray, the origin problem of so called “knee” region (energy > one PeV) can be solved. However, up to the present, the results of the spectrum in the knee region obtained by several previous experiments have shown obvious differences, so they cannot give effective evidence for judging the theoretical models on the origin of the knee. Recently, the Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO) has reported several major breakthroughs and important results in astro-particle physics field. Relying on its advantages of wide-sky survey, high altitude location and large area detector arrays, the research content of LHAASO experiment mainly includes ultra high-energy gamma-ray astronomy, measurement of cosmic ray spectra in the knee region, searching for dark matter and new phenomena of particle physics at higher energy. The electron and thermal neutron detector (EN-Detector) is a new scintillator detector which applies thermal neutron detection technology to measure cosmic ray extensive air shower (EAS). This technology is an extension of LHAASO. The EN-Detector Array (ENDA) can highly efficiently measure thermal neutrons generated by secondary hadrons so called “skeleton” of EAS. In this paper, we perform the optimization of ENDA configuration, and obtain expectations on the ENDA results, including thermal neutron distribution, trigger efficiency and capability of cosmic ray composition separation. The obtained real data results are consistent with those by the Monte Carlo simulation.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

cosmic ray / EAS / knee region / LHAASO / ENDA

References

[1] M. Aguilar, L. Ali Cavasonza, G. Ambrosi, L. Arruda, N. Attig. . The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) on the international space station: Part II — Results from the first seven years. Phys. Rep., 2021, 894: 1

[2] G. Aielli, C. Bacci, B. Bartoli, P. Bernardini, X. J. Bi. . Highlights from the ARGO-YBJ experiment. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 2012, 661(Suppl. 1): S50

[3] X. H. Ma. . Chapter 1 LHAASO instruments and detector technology. Chin. Phys. C, 2022, 46: 030001

[4] Z. Cao, . (LHAASO Collaboration). . Ultrahigh-energy photons up to 1.4 petaelectronvolts from 12 gamma-ray galactic sources. Nature, 2021, 594: 33

[5] Z. Cao, F. Aharonian, Q. An. Axikegu, L. X. Bai, et al., PETA-electron volt gamma-ray emission from the Crab nebula. Science, 2021, 373(6553): 425

[6] Z.Cao, EAS arrays at high altitudes start the era of UHE-ray astronomy, Universe 7 (9), 339 (2021)

[7] P.VeresE. BurnsE.Bissaldi, ., GRB 221009A: Fermi GBM detection of an extraordinarily bright GRB, GRB Coordinates Network, No. 32636 (2022)

[8] S.DichiaraJ. D. GroppJ.A. Kennea, ., Swift J1913.1+1946 a new bright hard X-ray and optical transient, GRB Coordinates Network, No. 32632 (2022)

[9] Z. Cao, F. Aharonian, Q. An. Axikegu, L. X. Bai, et al., A tera-electron volt afterglow from a narrow jet in an extremely bright gamma-ray burst 221009A. Science, 2023, 380(6652): 1390

[10] J. R. Hörandel. Models of the knee in the energy spectrum of cosmic rays. Astropart. Phys., 2004, 21(3): 241

[11] T. K. Gaisser, T. Stanev, S. Tilav. Cosmic ray energy spectrum from measurements of air showers. Front. Phys., 2013, 8(6): 748

[12] S. I. Nikolsky. The cause of the EAS spectrum break. Proc. 25th ICRC (Durban), 1997, 6: 105

[13] A.A. Petrukhin, Problem of the knee and very high energy muons, Proc. 27th ICRC (Hamburg), 1768 (2001)

[14] D.KazanasA. Nikolaidis, Cosmic ray “knee”: A herald of new physics? Proc. 27th ICRC (Hamburg), 1760 (2001)

[15] Y. V. Stenkin. Does the “knee” in primary cosmic ray spectrum exist. Mod. Phys. Lett. A, 2003, 18(18): 1225

[16] T.AntoniW. D. ApelA.F. BadeaK.BekkA.Bercuci, ., KASCADE measurements of energy spectra for elemental groups of cosmic rays: Re sults and open problems, Astropart. Phys. 24(1‒2), 1 (2005)

[17] M. Amenomori, S. Ayabe, D. Chen, S. W. Cui. . Are protons still dominant at the knee of the cosmic-ray energy spectrum. Phys. Lett. B, 2006, 632(1): 58

[18] B. Bartoli, P. Bernardini, X. J. Bi, Z. Cao, S. Catalanotti. . Knee of the cosmic hydrogen and helium spectrum below 1 PeV measured by ARGO-YBJ and a Cherenkov telescope of LHAASO. Phys. Rev. D, 2015, 92(9): 092005

[19] Y. V. Stenkin, J. F. Valdes-Galicia. On the neutron bursts origin. Mod. Phys. Lett. A, 2002, 17(26): 1745

[20] Y. V. Stenkin. On the PRISMA project. Nucl. Phys. B Proc. Suppl., 2009, 196: 293

[21] Y V Stenkin, V V Alekseenko, D M Gromushkin. . Thermal neutron flux produced by EAS at various altitudes. Chin. Phys. C, 2013, 37(1): 015001

[22] Y. V. Stenkin, D. D. Djappuev, J. F. Valdés-Galicia. Neutrons in extensive air showers. Phys. At. Nucl., 2007, 70(6): 1088

[23] Y.V. Stenkin, Thermal neutrons in Eas: A new dimension in Eas study, Nucl. Phys. B Proc. Suppl. 175–176, 326 (2008)

[24] B. Bartoli, P. Bernardini, X. J. Bi, Z. Cao, S. Catalanotti. . Detection of thermal neutrons with the PRISMA-YBJ array in extensive air showers selected by the ARGO-YBJ experiment. Astropart. Phys., 2016, 81: 49

[25] Y. V. Stenkin, V. Alekseenko, Z. Y. Cai, Z. Cao, C. Cattaneo, S. Cui, E. Giroletti, D. Gromushkin, C. Guo, X. Guo, H. He, Y. Liu, X. Ma, O. Shchegolev, P. Vallania, C. Vigorito, J. Zhao. Seasonal and lunar month periods observed in natural neutron flux at high altitude. Pure Appl. Geophys., 2017, 174(7): 2763

[26] Y.V. StenkinV.AlekseenkoZ.Y. Cai Z.CaoC. CattaneoS.CuiP.FirstovE.GirolettiX.GuoH.HeY.Liu X.MaO.ShchegolevP.VallaniaC.VigoritoY.Yanin J.Zhao, Response of the environmental thermal neutron flux to earthquakes, J. Environ. Radioact. 208–209, 105981 (2019)

[27] B.B. LiV. V. AlekseenkoS.CuiT.L. ChenS.H. Feng Q.GaoY. LiuQ.C. HuangY.Y. HeM.Y. Liu X.H. MaE. I. PozdnyakovO.B. ShchegolevF.Z. ShenY.V. StenkinV.I. StepanovY.V. YaninJ.D. Yao R.Zhou, EAS thermal neutron detection with the PRISMA-LHAASO-16 experiment, J. Instrum. 12(12), P12028 (2017)

[28] M. Y. Liu, V. Alekseenko, S. W. Cui, T. L. Chen, Dangzengluobu Gao, Q. Kuleshov, D. Levochkin, K. Liu, Y. B. Li, B. H. Ma, X. Shchegolev, O. Shi, C. Stenkin, Y. Stepanov, V. of the thermal neutron detector array in Yangbajing. Tibet for cosmic ray EAS detection. Astrophys. Space Sci., 2020, 365(7): 123

[29] B. B. Li, S. W. Cui, C. Shi, F. Yang, L. W. Zhang, Y. Liu, X. H. Ma, W. Gao, L. Q. Yin, Y. V. Stenkin, D. A. Kuleshov, K. R. Levochkin, O. B. Shchegolev, T. L. Chen, Danzengluobu Y. Liu, M. X. Xiao. Electron neutron detector array (ENDA). Phys. At. Nucl., 2021, 84(6): 941

[30] F. Yang, X. H. Ma, H. K. Chen, T. L. Chen, S. W. Cui, Danzengluobu Gao, W. Kuleshov, D. Kurinov, K. B. Li, B. Y. Liu, M. Liu, Y. Shchegolev, O. Stenkin, Y. X. Xiao, D. Q. Yin, L. W. Zhang. Correlation between thermal neutrons and soil moisture measured by ENDA. J. Instrum., 2023, 18(5): P05020

[31] D. X. Xiao, T. L. Chen, S. W. Cui, Danzengluobu Gao, W. Kuleshov, D. Kurinov, K. Lagutkina, A. Levochkin, K. B. Li, B. Y. Liu, M. Liu, Y. H. Ma, X. Shchegolev, O. Stenkin, Y. Yang, F. Q. Yin, L. W. Zhang. Influence of soil environment on performance of EAS electron–neutron detector array. Astrophys. Space Sci., 2022, 367(8): 75

[32] D.Heck, Hadronic interaction models and the air shower simulation program CORSIKA, Proc. ICRC Hamburg Vol. 233, 19 (2001)

[33] J Allison, K Amako, J Apostolakis. . Geant4 developments and applications. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2006, 53(1): 270

[34] H. Y. Zhang, H. H. He, C. F. Feng. Approaches to composition independent energy reconstruction of cosmic rays based on the LHAASO-KM2A detector. Phys. Rev. D, 2022, 106(12): 123028

Declarations

The authors declare that they have no competing interests and there are no conflicts.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, Nos. 12320101005, 12373105, U2031103, 12205244, and 11963004) and Hebei Natural Science Foundation (No. A2019207004).

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 Higher Education Press