A polarizing situation: Taking an in-plane perspective for next-generation near-field studies

Abstract

By enabling the probing of light–matter interactions at the functionally relevant length scales of most materials, near-field optical imaging and spectroscopy accesses information that is unobtainable with other methods. The advent of apertureless techniques, which exploit the ultralocalized and enhanced near-fields created by sharp metallic tips or plasmonic nanoparticles, has resulted in rapid adoption of near-field approaches for studying novel materials and phenomena, with spatial resolution approaching sub-molecular levels. However, these approaches are generally limited by the dominant out-of-plane polarization response of apertureless tips, restricting the exploration and discovery of many material properties. This has led to recent design and fabrication breakthroughs in near-field tips engineered specifically for enhancing in-plane interactions with near-field light components. This mini-review provides a perspective on recent progress and emerging directions aimed at utilizing and controlling in-plane optical polarization, highlighting key application spaces where in-plane near-field tip responses have enabled recent advancements in the understanding and development of new nanostructured materials and devices.

Keywords

near-field optical microscopy / nano-optics / TERS / plasmonics / optical antenna / 2D materials

References

[1] L. Novotny and B. Hecht, Principles of Nano-Optics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006

[2] S. Kawata, Y. Inouye, and P. Verma, Plasmonics for near-field nano-imaging and superlensing, Nat. Photonics 3(7), 388 (2009)

[3] M. A. Paesler and P. J. Moyer, Near-Field Optics: Theory, Instrumentation and Applications, New York: Wiley, 1996

[4] J. M. Atkin, S. Berweger, A. C. Jones, and M. B. Raschke, Nano-optical imaging and spectroscopy of order, phases, and domains in complex solids, Adv. Phys. 61(6), 745 (2012)

[5] M. Fleischer, Near-field scanning optical microscopy nanoprobes, Nanotechnology Reviews 1(4), 313 (2012)

[6] P. J. Schuck, A. Weber-Bargioni, P. D. Ashby, D. F. Ogletree, A. Schwartzberg, and S. Cabrini, Life beyond diffraction: Opening new routes to materials characterization with next-generation optical near-field approaches, Adv. Funct. Mater. 23(20), 2539 (2013)

[7] N. Mauser and A. Hartschuh, Tip-enhanced near-field optical microscopy, Chem. Soc. Rev. 43(4), 1248 (2014)

[8] A. V. Zayats and D. Richards(Eds.), Nano-Optics and Near-Field Optical Microscopy, Artech House, 2008

[9] R. C. Dunn, Near-field scanning optical microscopy, Chem. Rev. 99(10), 2891 (1999)

[10] M. I. Stockman, Nanoplasmonics: The physics behind the applications, Phys. Today 64(2), 39 (2011)

[11] A. Hartschuh, Tip-enhanced near-field optical microscopy, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47(43), 8178 (2008)

[12] B. S. Yeo, J. Stadler, T. Schmid, R. Zenobi, and W. H. Zhang, Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy – Its status, challenges and future directions, Chem. Phys. Lett. 472(1-3), 1 (2009)

[13] B. Pettinger, P. Schambach, C. J. Villagomez, and N. Scott, Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: Near-fields acting on a few molecules, in: Annual Review of Physical Chemistry, M. A. Johnson and T. J. Martinez (Eds.), 2012, pp 379–399

[14] K. Joulain, R. Carminati, J. P. Mulet, and J. J. Greffet, Definition and measurement of the local density of electromagnetic states close to an interface, Phys. Rev. B 68(24), 245405 (2003)

[15] R. Beams, D. Smith, T. W. Johnson, S. H. Oh, L. Novotny, and A. N. Vamivakas, Nanoscale fluorescence lifetime imaging of an optical antenna with a single diamond NV center, Nano Lett. 13(8), 3807 (2013)

[16] R. Carminati, A. Caze, D. Cao, F. Peragut, V. Krachmalnicoff, R. Pierrat, and Y. De Wilde, Electromagnetic density of states in complex plasmonic systems, Surf. Sci. Rep. 70(1), 1 (2015)

[17] N. Rotenberg and L. Kuipers, Mapping nanoscale light fields, Nat. Photonics 8(12), 919 (2014)

[18] M. Schnell, A. Garcia-Etxarri, J. Alkorta, J. Aizpurua, and R. Hillenbrand, Phase-resolved mapping of the near-field vector and polarization state in nanoscale antenna gaps, Nano Lett. 10(9), 3524 (2010)

[19] K. G. Lee, H. W. Kihm, J. E. Kihm, W. J. Choi, H. Kim, C. Ropers, D. J. Park, Y. C. Yoon, S. B. Choi, H. Woo, J. Kim, B. Lee, Q. H. Park, C. Lienau, and D. S. Kim, Vector field microscopic imaging of light, Nat. Photonics 1(1), 53 (2007)

[20] H. Gersen, L. Novotny, L. Kuipers, and N. F. van Hulst, On the concept of imaging nanoscale vector fields, Nat. Photonics 1(5), 242 (2007)

[21] M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, 7th Ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999

[22] T. Setala, A. Shevchenko, M. Kaivola, and A. T. Friberg, Degree of polarization for optical near fields, Phys. Rev. E 66(1), 016615 (2002)

[23] S. Patanè, E. Cefali, S. Spadaro, R. Gardelli, M. Albani, and M. Allegrini, Polarization-maintaining near-field optical probes, Journal of Microscopy 229(2), 377 (2008)

[24] M. J. Fasolka, L. S. Goldner, J. Hwang, A. M. Urbas, P. Derege, T. Swager, and E. L. Thomas, Measuring local optical properties: Near-field polarimetry of photonic block copolymer morphology, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90(1), 016107, 1 (2003)

[25] P. Anger, P. Bharadwaj, and L. Novotny, Enhancement and quenching of single-molecule fluorescence, Phys. Rev. Lett. 96(11), 113002 (2006)

[26] E. Betzig and R. J. Chichester, Single molecules observed by near-field scanning optical microscopy, Science 262(5138), 1422 (1993)

[27] H. Eghlidi, K. G. Lee, X. W. Chen, S. Gotzinger, and V. Sandoghdar, Resolution and enhancement in nanoantenna-based fluorescence microscopy, Nano Lett. 9(12), 4007 (2009)

[28] S. Kühn, U. Håkanson, L. Rogobete, and V. Sandoghdar, Enhancement of single-molecule fluorescence using a gold nanoparticle as an optical nanoantenna, Phys. Rev. Lett. 97(1), 017402 (2006)

[29] P. Bharadwaj, P. Anger, and L. Novotny, Nanoplasmonic enhancement of single-molecule fluorescence, Nanotechnology 18(4), 044017 (2007)

[30] J. N. Farahani, D. W. Pohl, H. J. Eisler, and B. Hecht, Single quantum dot coupled to a scanning optical antenna: A tunable superemitter, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95(1), 017402 (2005)

[31] J. M. Gerton, L. A. Wade, G. A. Lessard, Z. Ma, and S. R. Quake, Tip-enhanced fluorescence microscopy at 10 nanometer resolution, Phys. Rev. Lett. 93(18), 180801 (2004)

[32] A. Ghimire, E. Shafran, and J. M. Gerton, Using a sharp metal tip to control the polarization and direction of emission from a quantum dot, Sci. Rep. 4, 6456 (2014)

[33] T. H. Taminiau, R. J. Moerland, F. B. Segerink, L. Kuipers, and N. F. van Hulst, λ/4 resonance of an optical monopole antenna probed by single molecule fluorescence, Nano Lett. 7(1), 28 (2007)

[34] J. A. Veerman, A. M. Otter, L. Kuipers, and N. F. van Hulst, High definition aperture probes for near-field optical microscopy fabricated by focused ion beam milling, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72(24), 3115 (1998)

[35] R. Eckel, V. Walhorn, C. Pelargus, J. Martini, J. Enderlein, T. Nann, D. Anselmetti, and R. Ros, Fluorescence-emission control of single CdSe nanocrystals using gold-modified AFM tips, Small 3(1), 44 (2007)

[36] E. Yoskovitz, D. Oron, I. Shweky, and U. Banin, Apertureless near-field distance-dependent lifetime imaging and spectroscopy of semiconductor nanocrystals, J. Phys. Chem. C 112(42), 16306 (2008)

[37] V. V. Protasenko, M. Kuno, A. Gallagher, and D. J. Nesbitt, Fluorescence of single ZnS overcoated CdSe quantum dots studied by apertureless near-field scanning optical microscopy, Opt. Commun. 210(1-2), 11 (2002)

[38] M. I. Stockman, D. J. Bergman, and T. Kobayashi, Coherent control of nanoscale localization of ultrafast optical excitation in nanosystems, Phys. Rev. B 69(5), 054202 (2004)

[39] S. Berweger, C. C. Neacsu, Y. B. Mao, H. J. Zhou, S. S. Wong, and M. B. Raschke, Optical nanocrystallography with tip-enhanced phonon Raman spectroscopy, Nat. Nanotechnol. 4(8), 496 (2009)

[40] S. Berweger, J. M. Atkin, R. L. Olmon, and M. B. Raschke, Light on the tip of a needle: Plasmonic nanofocusing for spectroscopy on the nanoscale, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 3(7), 945 (2012)

[41] E. J. Sánchez, L. Novotny, and X. S. Xie, Near-field fluorescence microscopy based on two-photon excitation with metal tips, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82(20), 4014 (1999)

[42] T. Ichimura, N. Hayazawa, M. Hashimoto, Y. Inouye, and S. Kawata, Tip-enhanced coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering for vibrational nanoimaging, Phys. Rev. Lett. 92(22), 220801 (2004)

[43] S. Palomba and L. Novotny, Near-field imaging with a localized nonlinear light source, Nano Lett. 9(11), 3801 (2009)

[44] A. V. Zayats and V. Sandoghdar, Apertureless scanning near-field second-harmonic microscopy, Opt. Commun. 178(1-3), 245 (2000)

[45] A. V. Zayats and V. Sandoghdar, Apertureless near-field optical microscopy via local second-harmonic generation, Journal of Microscopy 202(1), 94 (2001)

[46] A.V. Zayats and I. I. Smolyaninov, Near-field second-harmonic generation: One contribution of 13 to a Theme “Nano-optics and near-field microscopy”, Royal Society of London Transactions Series A, 362(1817), 843 (2004)

[47] C. C. Neacsu, B. B. van Aken, M. Fiebig, and M. B. Raschke, Second-harmonic near-field imaging of ferroelectric domain structure of YMnO₃, Phys. Rev. B 79(10), 100107 (2009)

[48] C. Neacsu, G. Steudle, and M. Raschke, Plasmonic light scattering from nanoscopic metal tips, Appl. Phys. B 80(3), 295 (2005)

[49] K. A. Meyer, K. C. Ng, Z. Gu, Z. Pan, W. B. Whitten, and R. W. Shaw, Combined apertureless near-field optical second-harmonic generation/atomic force microscopy imaging and nanoscale limit of detection, Appl. Spectrosc. 64(1), 1 (2010)

[50] S. I. Bozhevolnyi, K. Pedersen, T. Skettrup, X. S. Zhang, and M. Belmonte, Far- and near-field second-harmonic imaging of ferroelectric domain walls, Opt. Commun. 152(4-6), 221 (1998)

[51] L. Mahieu-Williame, S. Gresillon, M. Cuniot-Ponsard, and C. Boccara, Second harmonic generation in the near field and far field: A sensitive tool to probe crystalline homogeneity, J. Appl. Phys. 101(8), 083111 (2007)

[52] E. Betzig, P. L. Finn, and J. S. Weiner, Combined shear force and near-field scanning optical microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60(20), 2484 (1992)

[53] E. Betzig and J. K. Trautman, Near-field optics: Microscopy, spectroscopy, and surface modification beyond the diffraction limit, Science 257(5067), 189 (1992)

[54] T. J. Silva and S. Schultz, A scanning near-field optical microscope for the imaging of magnetic domains in reflection, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67(3), 715 (1996)

[55] F. Matthes, H. Bruckl, and G. Reiss, Near-field magneto-optical microscopy in collection and illumination mode, Ultramicroscopy 71(1-4), 243 (1998)

[56] P. Bertrand, L. Conin, C. Hermann, G. Lampel, J. Peretti, and V. I. Safarov, Imaging of magnetic domains with scanning tunneling optical microscopy, J. Appl. Phys. 83(11), 6834 (1998)

[57] C. Durkan, I. V. Shvets, and J. C. Lodder, Observation of magnetic domains using a reflection-mode scanning near-field optical microscope, Appl. Phys. Lett. 70(10), 1323 (1997)

[58] S. Takahashi, W. Dickson, R. Pollard, and A. Zayats, Near-field magneto-optical analysis in reflection mode SNOM, Ultramicroscopy 100(3-4), 443 (2004)

[59] P. Fumagalli, A. Rosenberger, G. Eggers, A. Munnemann, N. Held, and G. Guntherodt, Quantitative determination of the local Kerr rotation by scanning near-field magneto-optic microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72(22), 2803 (1998)

[60] S. Grésillon, H. Cory, J. C. Rivoal, and A. C. Boccara, Transmission-mode apertureless near-field microscope: Optical and magneto-optical studies, J. Opt. A 1(2), 178 (1999)

[61] J. N. Walford, J. A. Porto, R. Carminati, and J. J. Greffet, Theory of near-field magnetooptical imaging, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 19(3), 572 (2002)

[62] P. Fumagalli, Scanning near-field magneto-optic microscopy, in: Modern Techniques for Characterizing Magnetic Materials, edited by Y. Zhu, 2005, Dordrecht: Springer, pp 455–515

[63] S. Sugano and N. Kojima(Eds.), Magneto-Optics (Springer Series in Solid-State Sciences), Berlin: Springer, 2000

[64] W. Dickson, S. Takahashi, R. Pollard, R. Atkinson, and A. V. Zayats, Near-field imaging of ultrathin magnetic films with in-plane magnetization, Journal of Microscopy 209(3), 194 (2003)

[65] A. Kapitulnik, J. S. Dodge, and M. M. Fejer, High-resolution magneto-optic measurements with a Sagnac interferometer, J. Appl. Phys. 75(10), 6872 (1994)

[66] B. L. Petersen, A. Bauer, G. Meyer, T. Crecelius, and G. Kaindl, Kerr-rotation imaging in scanning near-field optical microscopy using a modified Sagnac interferometer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73(4), 538 (1998)

[67] I. I. Smolyaninov, A. V. Zayats, and C. C. Davis, Near-field second-harmonic imaging of ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, Opt. Lett. 22(21), 1592 (1997)

[68] D. Wegner, U. Conrad, J. Gudde, G. Meyer, T. Crecelius, and A. Bauer, In-plane magnetization of garnet films imaged by proximal probe nonlinear magneto-optical microscopy, J. Appl. Phys. 88(4), 2166 (2000)

[69] W. Dickson, S. Takahashi, C. M. I. Boronat, R. M. Bowman, J. M. Gregg, and A. V. Zayats, Near-field second-harmonic imaging of thin ferroelectric films, Phys. Rev. B 72(9), 094110 (2005)

[70] J. Stadler, T. Schmid, and R. Zenobi, Developments in and practical guidelines for tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, Nanoscale 4(6), 1856 (2012)

[71] T. Mino, Y. Saito, and P. Verma, Quantitative analysis of polarization-controlled tip-enhanced Raman imaging through the evaluation of the tip dipole, ACS Nano 8(10), 10187 (2014)

[72] Y. Saito and P. Verma, Polarization-controlled Raman microscopy and nanoscopy, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 3(10), 1295 (2012)

[73] M. D. Sonntag, E. A. Pozzi, N. Jiang, M. C. Hersam, and R. P. Van Duyne, Recent advances in tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5(18), 3125 (2014)

[74] P. Verma, T. Ichimura, T. Yano, Y. Saito, and S. Kawata, Nano-imaging through tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: Stepping beyond the classical limits, Laser Photonics Rev. 4(4), 548 (2010)

[75] T. Mino, Y. Saito, H. Yoshida, S. Kawata, and P. Verma, Molecular orientation analysis of organic thin films by z-polarization Raman microscope, J. Raman Spectrosc. 43(12), 2029 (2012)

[76] H. A. Bethe, Theory of diffraction by small holes, Phys. Rev. 66(7-8), 163 (1944)

[77] L. Novotny and C. Hafner, Light propagation in a cylindrical waveguide with a complex, metallic, dielectric function, Phys. Rev. E 50(5), 4094 (1994)

[78] R. D. Grober, T. Rutherford, and T. D. Harris, Modal approximation for the electromagnetic field of a near-field optical probe, Appl. Opt. 35(19), 3488 (1996)

[79] Th. Huser, L. Novotny, Th. Lacoste, R. Eckert, and H. Heinzelmann, Observation and analysis of near-field optical diffraction, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 16(1), 141 (1999)

[80] T. Kalkbrenner, M. Ramstein, J. Mlynek, and V. Sandoghdar, A single gold particle as a probe for apertureless scanning near-field optical microscopy, Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 202(1), 72 (2001)

[81] M. I. Stockman, Nanofocusing of optical energy in tapered plasmonic waveguides, Phys. Rev. Lett. 93(13), 137404 (2004)

[82] F. Huth, M. Schnell, J. Wittborn, N. Ocelic, and R. Hillenbrand, Infrared-spectroscopic nanoimaging with a thermal source, Nat. Mater. 10(5), 352 (2011)

[83] J. Stadler, T. Schmid, and R. Zenobi, Nanoscale chemical imaging using top-illumination tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, Nano Lett. 10(11), 4514 (2010)

[84] A. Weber-Bargioni, A. Schwartzberg, M. Cornaglia, A. Ismach, J. J. Urban, Y. Pang, R. Gordon, J. Bokor, M. B. Salmeron, D. F. Ogletree, P. Ashby, S. Cabrini, and P. J. Schuck, Hyperspectral nanoscale imaging on dielectric substrates with coaxial optical antenna scan probes, Nano Lett. 11(3), 1201 (2011)

[85] P. G. Gucciardi, M. Lopes, R. Déturche, C. Julien, D. Barchiesi, and M. L. de la Chapelle, Light depolarization induced by metallic tips in apertureless near-field optical microscopy and tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, Nanotechnology 19(21), 215702 (2008)

[86] R. Ossikovski, Q. Nguyen, and G. Picardi, Simple model for the polarization effects in tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. B 75(4), 045412 (2007)

[87] T. Schmid, L. Opilik, C. Blum, and R. Zenobi, Nanoscale chemical imaging using tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: A critical review, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52(23), 5940 (2013)

[88] T. Schmid, B. S. Yeo, G. Leong, J. Stadler, and R. Zenobi, Performing tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy in liquids, J. Raman Spectrosc. 40(10), 1392 (2009)

[89] A. Tarun, N. Hayazawa, and S. Kawata, Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy for nanoscale strain characterization, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 394(7), 1775 (2009)

[90] Y. Ogawa, T. Toizumi, F. Minami, and A. V. Baranov, Nanometer-scale mapping of the strain and Ge content of Ge/Si quantum dots using enhanced Raman scattering by the tip of an atomic force microscope, Phys. Rev. B 83(8), 081302 (2011)

[91] S. Nakashima, T. Mitani, M. Ninomiya, and K. Matsumoto, Raman investigation of strain in Si/SiGe heterostructures: Precise determination of the strain-shift coefficient of Si bands, J. Appl. Phys. 99(5), 053512 (2006)

[92] R. M. Stöckle, Y. D. Suh, V. Deckert, and R. Zenobi, Nanoscale chemical analysis by tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, Chem. Phys. Lett. 318(1-3), 131 (2000)

[93] Y. D. Suh, R. M. Soeckle, V. Deckert, and R. Zenobi, Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society 221, U91 (2001)

[94] E. Poliani, M. R. Wagner, J. S. Reparaz, M. Mandl, M. Strassburg, X. Kong, A. Trampert, C. M. Sotomayor Torres, A. Hoffmann, and J. Maultzsch, Nanoscale imaging of InN segregation and polymorphism in single vertically aligned InGaN/GaN multi quantum well nanorods by tip-enhanced Raman scattering, Nano Lett. 13(7), 3205 (2013)

[95] S. Berweger, J. M. Atkin, R. L. Olmon, and M. B. Raschke, Adiabatic tip-plasmon focusing for nano-Raman spectroscopy, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 1(24), 3427 (2010)

[96] N. Hayazawa, M. Motohashi, Y. Saito, H. Ishitobi, A. Ono, T. Ichimura, P. Verma, and S. Kawata, Visualization of localized strain of a crystalline thin layer at the nanoscale by tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and microscopy, J. Raman Spectrosc. 38(6), 684 (2007)

[97] C. Chen, N. Hayazawa, and S. Kawata, A 1.7 nm resolution chemical analysis of carbon nanotubes by tip-enhanced Raman imaging in the ambient, Nat. Commun. 5, 3312 (2014)

[98] T. Yano, P. Verma, Y. Saito, T. Ichimura, and S. Kawata, Pressure-assisted tip-enhanced Raman imaging at a resolution of a few nanometres, Nat. Photonics 3(8), 473 (2009)

[99] R. Zhang, Y. Zhang, Z. C. Dong, S. Jiang, C. Zhang, L. G. Chen, L. Zhang, Y. Liao, J. Aizpurua, Y. Luo, J. L. Yang, and J. G. Hou, Chemical mapping of a single molecule by plasmon-enhanced Raman scattering, Nature 498(7452), 82 (2013)

[100] T. X. Huang, S. C. Huang, M. H. Li, Z. C. Zeng, X. Wang, and B. Ren, Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: Tip-related issues, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 407(27), 8177 (2015)

[101] X. Zheng, C. Zong, M. Xu, X. Wang, and B. Ren, Raman imaging from microscopy to nanoscopy, and to macroscopy, Small 11(28), 3395 (2015)

[102] R. Beams, L. G. Cancado, S. H. Oh, A. Jorio, and L. Novotny, Spatial coherence in near-field Raman scattering, Phys. Rev. Lett. 113(18), 186101 (2014)

[103] F. De Angelis, G. Das, P. Candeloro, M. Patrini, M. Galli, A. Bek, M. Lazzarino, I. Maksymov, C. Liberale, L. C. Andreani, and E. Di Fabrizio, Nanoscale chemical mapping using three-dimensional adiabatic compression of surface plasmon polaritons, Nat. Nanotechnol. 5(1), 67 (2010)

[104] A. Hartschuh, E. J. Sanchez, X. S. Xie, and L. Novotny, High-resolution near-field Raman microscopy of single-walled carbon nanotubes, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90(9), 095503 (2003)

[105] M. Brehm, T. Taubner, R. Hillenbrand, and F. Keilmann, Infrared spectroscopic mapping of single nanoparticles and viruses at nanoscale resolution, Nano Lett. 6(7), 1307 (2006)

[106] F. Huth, A. Govyadinov, S. Amarie, W. Nuansing, F. Keilmann, and R. Hillenbrand, Nano-FTIR absorption spectroscopy of molecular fingerprints at 20 nm spatial resolution, Nano Lett. 12(8), 3973 (2012)

[107] A. C. Jones and M. B. Raschke, Thermal infrared near-field spectroscopy, Nano Lett. 12(3), 1475 (2012)

[108] I. Amenabar, S. Poly, W. Nuansing, E. H. Hubrich, A. A. Govyadinov, F. Huth, R. Krutokhvostov, L. Zhang, M. Knez, J. Heberle, A. M. Bittner, and R. Hillenbrand, Structural analysis and mapping of individual protein complexes by infrared nanospectroscopy, Nat. Commun. 4, 2890 (2013)

[109] H. A. Bechtel, E. A. Muller, R. L. Olmon, M. C. Martin, and M. B. Raschke, Ultrabroadband infrared nanospectroscopic imaging, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 111(20), 7191 (2014)

[110] S. Mastel, A. A. Govyadinov, T. V. A. G. de Oliveira, I. Amenabar, and R. Hillenbrand, Nanoscale-resolved chemical identification of thin organic films using infrared near-field spectroscopy and standard Fourier transform infrared references, Appl. Phys. Lett. 106(2), 023113 (2015)

[111] B. Pollard, E. A. Muller, K. Hinrichs, and M. B. Raschke, Vibrational nano-spectroscopic imaging correlating structure with intermolecular coupling and dynamics, Nat. Commun. 5, 3587 (2014)

[112] C. Höppener and L. Novotny, Exploiting the light–metal interaction for biomolecular sensing and imaging, Q. Rev. Biophys. 45(02), 209 (2012)

[113] B. D. Mangum, C. Mu, and J. M. Gerton, Resolving single fluorophores within dense ensembles: contrast limits of tip-enhanced fluorescence microscopy, Opt. Express 16(9), 6183 (2008)

[114] B. D. Mangum, E. Shafran, C. Mu, and J. M. Gerton, Three-dimensional mapping of near-field interactions via single-photon tomography, Nano Lett. 9(10), 3440 (2009)

[115] L. Neumann, Y. J. Pang, A. Houyou, M. L. Juan, R. Gordon, and N. F. van Hulst, Extraordinary optical transmission brightens near-field fiber probe, Nano Lett. 11(2), 355 (2011)

[116] M. A. Bopp, A. J. Meixner, G. Tarrach, I. Zschokke-Gränacher, and L. Novotny, Direct imaging single molecule diffusion in a solid polymer host, Chem. Phys. Lett. 263(6), 721 (1996)

[117] T. W. Johnson, Z. J. Lapin, R. Beams, N. C. Lindquist, S. G. Rodrigo, L. Novotny, and S. H. Oh, Highly reproducible near-field optical imaging with sub-20-nm resolution based on template-stripped gold pyramids, ACS Nano 6(10), 9168 (2012)

[118] C. C. Neacsu, G. A. Reider, and M. B. Raschke, Second-harmonic generation from nanoscopic metal tips: Symmetry selection rules for single asymmetric nanostructures, Phys. Rev. B 71(20), 201402 (2005)

[119] A. L. Demming, F. Festy, and D. Richards, Plasmon resonances on metal tips: Understanding tip-enhanced Raman scattering, J. Chem. Phys. 122(18), 184716 (2005)

[120] D. Mehtani, N. Lee, R. D. Hartschuh, A. Kisliuk, M. D. Foster, A. P. Sokolov, and J. F. Maguire, Nano-Raman spectroscopy with side-illumination optics, J. Raman Spectrosc. 36(11), 1068 (2005)

[121] J. A. Veerman, M. F. Garcia-Parajo, L. Kuipers, and N. F. Van Hulst, Single molecule mapping of the optical field distribution of probes for near-field microscopy, Journal of Microscopy 194(2-3), 477 (1999)

[122] B. Sick, B. Hecht, U. P. Wild, and L. Novotny, Probing confined fields with single molecules and vice versa, Journal of Microscopy 202(2), 365 (2001)

[123] K. G. Lee, H. W. Kihm, K. J. Ahn, J. S. Ahn, Y. D. Suh, C. Lienau, and D. S. Kim, Vector field mapping of local polarization using gold nanoparticle functionalized tips: Independence of the tip shape, Opt. Express 15(23), 14993 (2007)

[124] C. Huang, A. Bouhelier, G. Colas des Francs, A. Bruyant, A. Guenot, E. Finot, J.C. Weeber, and A. Dereux, Gain, detuning, and radiation patterns of nanoparticle optical antennas, Phys. Rev. B 78(15), 155407 (2008)

[125] M. A. Lieb, J. M. Zavislan, and L. Novotny, Single-molecule orientations determined by direct emission pattern imaging, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 21(6), 1210 (2004)

[126] T. H. Taminiau, F. D. Stefani, F. B. Segerink, and N. F. Van Hulst, Optical antennas direct single-molecule emission, Nat. Photonics 2(4), 234 (2008)

[127] S. Kuhn, G. Mori, M. Agio, and V. Sandoghdar, Modification of single molecule fluorescence close to a nanostructure: Radiation pattern, spontaneous emission and quenching, Mol. Phys. 106(7), 893 (2008)

[128] M. Böhmler, N. Hartmann, C. Georgi, F. Hennrich, A. A. Green, M. C. Hersam, and A. Hartschuh, Enhancing and redirecting carbon nanotube photoluminescence by an optical antenna, Opt. Express 18(16), 16443 (2010)

[129] T. H. Taminiau, S. Karaveli, N. F. van Hulst, and R. Zia, Quantifying the magnetic nature of light emission, Nat. Commun. 3, 979 (2012)

[130] A. G. Curto, G. Volpe, T. H. Taminiau, M. P. Kreuzer, R. Quidant, and N. F. van Hulst, Unidirectional emission of a quantum dot coupled to a nanoantenna, Science 329(5994), 930 (2010)

[131] M. Terrones, Science and technology of the twenty-first century: Synthesis, properties, and applications of carbon nanotubes, Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 33(1), 419 (2003)

[132] M. S. Dresselhaus, A. Jorio, and R. Saito, Characterizing graphene, graphite, and carbon nanotubes by Raman spectroscopy, Ann. Rev. Condens. Matter Phys. 1, 89 (2010)

[133] X. Zhang, W. Zhang, L. Liu, and Z. X. Shen, Surface-enhanced Raman of Z-vibration mode in single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotube, Chem. Phys. Lett. 372(3-4), 497 (2003)

[134] M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, R. Saito, and A. Jorio, Raman spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes, Phys. Rep. 409(2), 47 (2005)

[135] M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, and A. Jorio, Raman spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes in 1997 and 2007, J. Phys. Chem. C 111(48), 17887 (2007)

[136] C. Fantini, A. Jorio, M. Souza, M. S. Strano, M. S. Dresselhaus, and M. A. Pimenta, Optical transition energies for carbon nanotubes from resonant Raman spectroscopy: Environment and temperature effects, Phys. Rev. Lett. 93(14), 147406 (2004)

[137] C. Fantini, A. Jorio, M. Souza, R. Saito, G. G. Samsonidze, M. S. Dresselhaus, and M. A. Pimenta, Steplike dispersion of the intermediate-frequency Raman modes in semiconducting and metallic carbon nanotubes, Phys. Rev. B 72(8), 085446 (2005)

[138] R. Saito, T. Takeya, T. Kimura, G. Dresselhaus, and M. S. Dresselhaus, Finite-size effect on the Raman spectra of carbon nanotubes, Phys. Rev. B 59(3), 2388 (1999)

[139] K. Sbai, A. Rahmani, H. Chadli, and J. L. Sauvajol, Finite-size effect on the Raman-active modes of double-walled carbon nanotubes, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 20(1), 015204 (2008)

[140] M. Mitra, and S. Gopalakrishnan, Vibrational characteristics of single-walled carbon-nanotube: Time and frequency domain analysis, J. Appl. Phys. 101(11), 114320 (2007)

[141] G. Picardi, M. Chaigneau, and R. Ossikovski, High resolution probing of multi wall carbon nanotubes by Tip Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy in gap-mode, Chem. Phys. Lett. 469(1-3), 161 (2009)

[142] I. O. Maciel, N. Anderson, M. A. Pimenta, A. Hartschuh, H. H. Qian, M. Terrones, H. Terrones, J. Campos-Delgado, A. M. Rao, L. Novotny, and A. Jorio, Electron and phonon renormalization near charged defects in carbon nanotubes, Nat. Mater. 7(11), 878 (2008)

[143] N. Anderson, A. Hartschuh, and L. Novotny, Chirality changes in carbon nanotubes studied with near-field raman spectroscopy, Nano Lett. 7(3), 577 (2007)

[144] Y. Saito, P. Verma, K. Masui, Y. Inouye, and S. Kawata, Nano-scale analysis of graphene layers by tip-enhanced near-field Raman spectroscopy, J. Raman Spectrosc. 40(10), 1434 (2009)

[145] R. H. Rickman and P. R. Dunstan, Enhancement of lattice defect signatures in graphene and ultrathin graphite using tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, J. Raman Spectrosc. 45(1), 15 (2014)

[146] R. Beams, L. G. Cancado, A. Jorio, A. N. Vamivakas, and L. Novotny, Tip-enhanced Raman mapping of local strain in graphene, Nanotechnology 26(17), 175702 (2015)

[147] A. Shiotari, T. Kumagai, and M. Wolf, Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy of graphene nanoribbons on Au(111), J. Phys. Chem. C 118(22), 11806 (2014)

[148] Z. Fei, A. S. Rodin, G. O. Andreev, W. Bao, A. S. McLeod, M. Wagner, L. M. Zhang, Z. Zhao, M. Thiemens, G. Dominguez, M. M. Fogler, A. H. C. Neto, C. N. Lau, F. Keilmann, and D. N. Basov, Gate-tuning of graphene plasmons revealed by infrared nano-imaging, Nature 487(7405), 82 (2012)

[149] J. N. Chen, M. Badioli, P. Alonso-Gonzalez, S. Thongrattanasiri, F. Huth, J. Osmond, M. Spasenovic, A. Centeno, A. Pesquera, P. Godignon, A. Z. Elorza, N. Camara, F. J. G. de Abajo, R. Hillenbrand, and F. H. L. Koppens, Optical nano-imaging of gate-tunable graphene plasmons, Nature 487(7405), 77 (2012)

[150] P. Alonso-Gonzalez, A. Y. Nikitin, F. Golmar, A. Centeno, A. Pesquera, S. Velez, J. Chen, G. Navickaite, F. Koppens, A. Zurutuza, F. Casanova, L. E. Hueso, and R. Hillenbrand, Controlling graphene plasmons with resonant metal antennas and spatial conductivity patterns, Science 344(6190), 1369 (2014)

[151] A. Woessner, M. B. Lundeberg, Y. Gao, A. Principi, P. Alonso-González, M. Carrega, K. Watanabe, T. Taniguchi, G. Vignale, M. Polini, J. Hone, R. Hillenbrand, and F. H. L. Koppens, Highly confined low-loss plasmons in graphene–boron nitride heterostructures, Nat. Mater. 14(4), 421 (2015)

[152] Z. Shi, X. Hong, H. A. Bechtel, B. Zeng, M. C. Martin, K. Watanabe, T. Taniguchi, Y. R. Shen, and F. Wang, Observation of a Luttinger-liquid plasmon in metallic single-walled carbon nanotubes, Nat. Photonics 9(8), 515 (2015)

[153] M. Wagner, Z. Fei, A. S. McLeod, A. S. Rodin, W. Bao, E. G. Iwinski, Z. Zhao, M. Goldflam, M. Liu, G. Dominguez, M. Thiemens, M. M. Fogler, A. H. Castro Neto, C. N. Lau, S. Amarie, F. Keilmann, and D. N. Basov, Ultrafast and nanoscale plasmonic phenomena in exfoliated graphene revealed by infrared pump–probe nanoscopy, Nano Lett. 14(2), 894 (2014)

[154] D. N. Basov, M. M. Fogler, A. Lanzara, F. Wang, and Y. Zhang, Colloquium: Graphene spectroscopy, Rev. Mod. Phys. 86(3), 959 (2014)

[155] N. C. Lindquist, P. Nagpal, K. M. McPeak, D. J. Norris, and S. H. Oh, Engineering metallic nanostructures for plasmonics and nanophotonics, Rep. Prog. Phys. 75(3), 036501 (2012)

[156] M. Fleischer, A. Weber-Bargioni, M. V. P. Altoe, A. M. Schwartzberg, P. J. Schuck, S. Cabrini, and D. P. Kern, Gold nanocone near-field scanning optical microscopy probes, ACS Nano 5(4), 2570 (2011)

[157] P. Muhlschlegel, H. J. Eisler, O. J. F. Martin, B. Hecht, and D. W. Pohl, Resonant optical antennas, Science 308(5728), 1607 (2005)

[158] P. J. Schuck, D. P. Fromm, A. Sundaramurthy, G. S. Kino, and W. E. Moerner, Improving the mismatch between light and nanoscale objects with gold Bowtie nanoantennas, Phys. Rev. Lett. 94(1), 017402 (2005)

[159] D. P. Fromm, A. Sundaramurthy, P. J. Schuck, G. Kino, and W. E. Moerner, Gap-dependent optical coupling of single “Bowtie” nanoantennas resonant in the visible, Nano Lett. 4(5), 957 (2004)

[160] P. Biagioni, J. S. Huang, and B. Hecht, Nanoantennas for visible and infrared radiation, Rep. Prog. Phys. 75(2), 024402 (2012)

[161] J. N. Farahani, H. J. Eisler, D. W. Pohl, M. Pavius, P. Fluckiger, P. Gasser, and B. Hecht, Bow-tie optical antenna probes for single-emitter scanning near-field optical microscopy, Nanotechnology 18(12), 125506 (2007)

[162] A. Weber-Bargioni, A. Schwartzberg, M. Schmidt, B. Harteneck, D. F. Ogletree, P. J. Schuck, and S. Cabrini, Functional plasmonic antenna scanning probes fabricated by induced-deposition mask lithography,Nanotechnology 21(6), 065306 (2010)

[163] M. Melli, A. Polyakov, D. Gargas, C. Huynh, L. Scipioni, W. Bao, D. F. Ogletree, P. J. Schuck, S. Cabrini, and A. Weber-Bargioni, Reaching the theoretical resonance quality factor limit in coaxial plasmonic nanoresonators fabricated by helium ion lithography, Nano Lett. 13(6), 2687 (2013)

[164] B. Radisavljevic, A. Radenovic, J. Brivio, V. Giacometti, and A. Kis, Single-layer MoS₂ transistors, Nat. Nanotechnol. 6(3), 147 (2011)

[165] Q. H. Wang, K. Kalantar-Zadeh, A. Kis, J. N. Coleman, and M. S. Strano, Electronics and optoelectronics of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides, Nat. Nanotechnol. 7(11), 699 (2012)

[166] Z. Yin, H. Li, H. Li, L. Jiang, Y. Shi, Y. Sun, G. Lu, Q. Zhang, X. Chen, and H. Zhang, Single-layer MoS₂ phototransistors, ACS Nano 6(1), 74 (2012)

[167] J. S. Ross, P. Klement, A. M. Jones, N. J. Ghimire, J. Yan, D. G. Mandrus, T. Taniguchi, K. Watanabe, K. Kitamura, W. Yao, D. H. Cobden, and X. Xu, Electrically tunable excitonic light-emitting diodes based on monolayer WSe2 p–n junctions, Nat. Nanotechnol. 9(4), 268 (2014)

[168] W. Wu, L. Wang, Y. Li, F. Zhang, L. Lin, S. Niu, D. Chenet, X. Zhang, Y. Hao, T. F. Heinz, J. Hone, and Z. L. Wang, Piezoelectricity of single-atomic-layer MoS₂ for energy conversion and piezotronics, Nature 514(7523), 470 (2014)

[169] B. W. H. Baugher, H. O. H. Churchill, Y. Yang, and P. Jarillo-Herrero, Optoelectronic devices based on electrically tunable p–n diodes in a monolayer dichalcogenide, Nat. Nanotechnol. 9(4), 262 (2014)

[170] F. H. L. Koppens, T. Mueller, P. Avouris, A. C. Ferrari, M. S. Vitiello, and M. Polini, Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems, Nat. Nanotechnol. 9(10), 780 (2014)

[171] G. Fiori, F. Bonaccorso, G. Iannaccone, T. Palacios, D. Neumaier, A. Seabaugh, S. K. Banerjee, and L. Colombo, Electronics based on two-dimensional materials, Nat. Nanotechnol. 9(10), 768 (2014)

[172] F. Xia, H. Wang, D. Xiao, M. Dubey, and A. Ramasubramaniam, Two-dimensional material nanophotonics, Nat. Photonics 8(12), 899 (2014)

[173] K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, M. I. Katsnelson, I. V. Grigorieva, S. V. Dubonos, and A. A. Firsov, Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene, Nature 438(7065), 197 (2005)

[174] Y. B. Zhang, Y. W. Tan, H. L. Stormer, and P. Kim, Experimental observation of the quantum Hall effect and Berry’s phase in graphene, Nature 438(7065), 201 (2005)

[175] K. F. Mak, C. Lee, J. Hone, J. Shan, and T. F. Heinz, Atomically thin MoS₂: A new direct-gap semiconductor, Phys. Rev. Lett. 105(13), 136805 (2010)

[176] A. Splendiani, L. Sun, Y. Zhang, T. Li, J. Kim, C. Y. Chim, G. Galli, and F. Wang, Emerging photoluminescence in monolayer MoS₂, Nano Lett. 10(4), 1271 (2010)

[177] A. Chernikov, T. C. Berkelbach, H. M. Hill, A. Rigosi, Y. Li, O. B. Aslan, D. R. Reichman, M. S. Hybertsen, and T. F. Heinz, Exciton binding energy and nonhydrogenic Rydberg series in monolayer WS₂, Phys. Rev. Lett. 113(7), 076802 (2014)

[178] Z. Ye, T. Cao, K. O'Brien, H. Zhu, X. Yin, Y. Wang, S. G. Louie, and X. Zhang, Probing excitonic dark states in single-layer tungsten disulphide, Nature 513(7517), 214 (2014)

[179] X. Xu, W. Yao, D. Xiao, and T. F. Heinz, Spin and pseudospins in layered transition metal dichalcogenides, Nat. Phys. 10(5), 343 (2014)

[180] A. K. Geim and I. V. Grigorieva, Van der Waals heterostructures, Nature 499(7459), 419 (2013)

[181] S. Z. Butler, S. M. Hollen, L. Cao, Y. Cui, J. A. Gupta, H. R. Gutierrez, T. F. Heinz, S. S. Hong, J. Huang, A. F. Ismach, E. Johnston-Halperin, M. Kuno, V. V. Plashnitsa, R. D. Robinson, R. S. Ruoff, S. Salahuddin, J. Shan, L. Shi, M. G. Spencer, M. Terrones, W. Windl, and J. E. Goldberger, Progress, challenges, and opportunities in two-dimensional materials beyond graphene, ACS Nano 7(4), 2898 (2013)

[182] K. F. Mak, K. He, C. Lee, G. H. Lee, J. Hone, T. F. Heinz, and J. Shan, Tightly bound trions in monolayer MoS₂, Nat. Mater. 12(3), 207 (2013)

[183] C. Zhang, A. Johnson, C. L. Hsu, L. J. Li, and C. K. Shih, Direct imaging of band profile in single layer MoS2 on graphite: Quasiparticle energy gap, metallic edge states, and edge band bending, Nano Lett. 14(5), 2443 (2014)

[184] M. M. Ugeda, A. J. Bradley, S. F. Shi, F. H. da Jornada, Y. Zhang, D. Y. Qiu, W. Ruan, S. K. Mo, Z. Hussain, Z. X. Shen, F. Wang, S. G. Louie, and M. F. Crommie, Giant bandgap renormalization and excitonic effects in a monolayer transition metal dichalcogenide semiconductor, Nat. Mater. 13(12), 1091 (2014)

[185] W. Zhu, T. Low, Y.H. Lee, H. Wang, D. B. Farmer, J. Kong, F. Xia, and P. Avouris, Electronic transport and device prospects of monolayer molybdenum disulphide grown by chemical vapour deposition, Nat. Commun. 5, 3087 (2014)

[186] J. A. Schuller, S. Karaveli, T. Schiros, K. He, S. Yang, I. Kymissis, J. Shan, and R. Zia, Orientation of luminescent excitons in layered nanomaterials, Nat. Nanotechnol. 8(4), 271 (2013)

[187] D. F. Ogletree, P. J. Schuck, A. F. Weber-Bargioni, N. J. Borys, S. Aloni, W. Bao, S. Barja, J. Lee, M. Melli, K. Munechika, S. Whitelam, and S. Wickenburg, Revealing optical properties of reduced-dimensionality materials at relevant length scales, Adv. Mater. 27(38), 5693 (2015)

[188] Y. Abate, S. Gamage, L. Zhen, S. B. Cronin, H. Wang, V. Babicheva, M. H. Javani, and M. I. Stockman, Nanoscopy reveals metallic black phosphorus, arXiv: 1506.05431

[189] Y. Lee, S. Park, H. Kim, G. H. Han, Y. H. Lee, and J. Kim, Characterization of the structural defects in CVD-grown monolayered MoS₂ using near-field photoluminescence imaging, Nanoscale 7(28), 11909 (2015)

[190] Y. Kang, S. Najmaei, Z. Liu, Y. Bao, Y. Wang, X. Zhu, N. J. Halas, P. Nordlander, P. M. Ajayan, J. Lou, and Z. Fang, Plasmonic hot electron induced structural phase transition in a MoS2 monolayer, Adv. Mater. 26(37), 6467 (2014)

[191] W. Bao, M. Melli, N. Caselli, F. Riboli, D. S. Wiersma, M. Staffaroni, H. Choo, D. F. Ogletree, S. Aloni, J. Bokor, S. Cabrini, F. Intonti, M. B. Salmeron, E. Yablonovitch, P. J. Schuck, and A. Weber-Bargioni, Mapping local charge recombination heterogeneity by multidimensional nanospectroscopic imaging, Science 338(6112), 1317 (2012)

[192] W. Bao, M. Staffaroni, J. Bokor, M. B. Salmeron, E. Yablonovitch, S. Cabrini, A. Weber-Bargioni, and P. J. Schuck, Plasmonic near-field probes: a comparison of the campanile geometry with other sharp tips, Opt. Express 21(7), 8166 (2013)

[193] W. Bao, N. J. Borys, C. Ko, J. Suh, W. Fan, A. Thron, Y. Zhang, A. Buyanin, J. Zhang, S. Cabrini, P. D. Ashby, A. Weber-Bargioni, S. Tongay, S. Aloni, D. F. Ogletree, J. Wu, M. B. Salmeron, and P. J. Schuck, Visualizing nanoscale excitonic relaxation properties of disordered edges and grain boundaries in monolayer molybdenum disulfide, Nat. Commun. 6, 7993 (2015)

[194] X. Cui, G. H. Lee, Y. D. Kim, G. Arefe, P. Y. Huang, C. H. Lee, D. A. Chenet, X. Zhang, L. Wang, F. Ye, F. Pizzocchero, B. S. Jessen, K. Watanabe, T. Taniguchi, D. A. Muller, T. Low, P. Kim, and J. Hone, Multi-terminal transport measurements of MoS2 using a van der Waals heterostructure device platform, Nat. Nanotechnol. 10(6), 534 (2015)

[195] E. Devaux, A. Dereux, E. Bourillot, J. C. Weeber, Y. Lacroute, J. P. Goudonnet, and C. Girard, Local detection of the optical magnetic field in the near zone of dielectric samples, Phys. Rev. B 62(15), 10504 (2000)

[196] Z. H. Kim and S. R. Leone, Polarization-selective mapping of near-field intensity and phase around gold nanoparticles using apertureless near-field microscopy, Opt. Express 16(3), 1733 (2008)

[197] D. S. Kim, J. Heo, S. H. Ahn, S. W. Han, W. S. Yun, and Z. H. Kim, Real-space mapping of the strongly coupled plasmons of nanoparticle dimers, Nano Lett. 9(10), 3619 (2009)

[198] M. Schnell, A. Garcia-Etxarri, A. J. Huber, K. Crozier, J. Aizpurua, and R. Hillenbrand, Controlling the near-field oscillations of loaded plasmonic nanoantennas, Nat. Photonics 3(5), 287 (2009)

[199] M. Schnell, P. Alonso-Gonzalez, L. Arzubiaga, F. Casanova, L. E. Hueso, A. Chuvilin, and R. Hillenbrand, Nanofocusing of mid-infrared energy with tapered transmission lines, Nat. Photonics 5(5), 283 (2011)

[200] R. L. Olmon, M. Rang, P. M. Krenz, B. A. Lail, L. V. Saraf, G. D. Boreman, and M. B. Raschke, Determination of electric-field, magnetic-field, and electric-current distributions of infrared optical antennas: A near-field optical vector network analyzer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 105(16), 167403 (2010)

[201] R. L. Olmon, P. M. Krenz, A. C. Jones, G. D. Boreman, and M. B. Raschke, Near-field imaging of optical antenna modes in the mid-infrared, Opt. Express 16(25), 20295 (2008)

[202] N. Yu, E. Cubukcu, L. Diehl, M. A. Belkin, K. B. Crozier, F. Capasso, D. Bour, S. Corzine, and G. Hofler, Plasmonic quantum cascade laser antenna, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91(17), 173113 (2007)

[203] L. Novotny and C. Henkel, Van der Waals versus optical interaction between metal nanoparticles, Opt. Lett. 33(9), 1029 (2008)

[204] J. Dorfmüller, D. Dregely, M. Esslinger, W. Khunsin, R. Vogelgesang, K. Kern, and H. Giessen, Near-field dynamics of optical Yagi-Uda nanoantennas, Nano Lett. 11(7), 2819 (2011)

[205] T. Zentgraf, J. Dorfmuller, C. Rockstuhl, C. Etrich, R. Vogelgesang, K. Kern, T. Pertsch, F. Lederer, and H. Giessen, Amplitude- and phase-resolved optical near fields of split-ring-resonator-based metamaterials, Opt. Lett. 33(8), 848 (2008)

[206] B. Deutsch, R. Hillenbrand, and L. Novotny, Visualizing the optical interaction tensor of a gold nanoparticle pair, Nano Lett. 10(2), 652 (2010)

[207] H. A. Bechtel, J. P. Camden, Z. H. Kim, D. J. A. Brown, and R. N. Zare, Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society 228, U275 (2004)

[208] P. Alonso-Gonzalez, M. Schnell, P. Sarriugarte, H. Sobhani, C. Wu, N. Arju, A. Khanikaev, F. Golmar, P. Albella, L. Arzubiaga, F. Casanova, L. E. Hueso, P. Nordlander, G. Shvets, and R. Hillenbrand, Real-space mapping of fano interference in plasmonic metamolecules, Nano Lett. 11(9), 3922 (2011)

[209] P. Uebel, M. A. Schmidt, H. W. Lee, and P. S. J. Russell, Polarisation-resolved near-field mapping of a coupled gold nanowire array, Opt. Express 20(27), 28409 (2012)

[210] S. Mastel, S. E. Grefe, G. B. Cross, A. Taber, S. Dhuey, S. Cabrini, P. J. Schuck, and Y. Abate, Real-space mapping of nanoplasmonic hotspots via optical antenna-gap loading, Appl. Phys. Lett. 101(13), 131102 (2012)

[211] S. E. Grefe, D. Leiva, S. Mastel, S. D. Dhuey, S. Cabrini, P. J. Schuck, and Y. Abate, Near-field spatial mapping of strongly interacting multiple plasmonic infrared antennas, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 15(43), 18944 (2013)

[212] T. Bauer, S. Orlov, U. Peschel, P. Banzer, and G. Leuchs, Nanointerferometric amplitude and phase reconstruction of tightly focused vector beams, Nat. Photonics 8(1), 23 (2014)

[213] N. Ocelic, A. Huber, and R. Hillenbrand, Pseudoheterodyne detection for background-free near-field spectroscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89(10), 101124 (2006)

[214] M. L. M. Balistreri, J. P. Korterik, L. Kuipers, and N. F. van Hulst, Local observations of phase singularities in optical fields in waveguide structures, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85(2), 294 (2000)

[215] A. Nesci, R. Dandliker, and H. P. Herzig, Quantitative amplitude and phase measurement by use of a heterodyne scanning near-field optical microscope, Opt. Lett. 26(4), 208 (2001)

[216] E. Verhagen, M. Spasenovic, A. Polman, and L. Kuipers, Nanowire plasmon excitation by adiabatic mode transformation, Phys. Rev. Lett. 102(20), 203904 (2009)

[217] M. Burresi, D. Diessel, D. Oosten, S. Linden, M. Wegener, and L. Kuipers, Negative-index metamaterials: Looking into the unit cell, Nano Lett. 10(7), 2480 (2010)

[218] H. Gersen, T. J. Karle, R. J. P. Engelen, W. Bogaerts, J. P. Korterik, N. F. van Hulst, T. F. Krauss, and L. Kuipers, Direct observation of Bloch harmonics and negative phase velocity in photonic crystal waveguides, Phys. Rev. Lett. 94(12), 123901 (2005)

[219] M. Ayache, M. P. Nezhad, S. Zamek, M. Abashin, and Y. Fainman, Near-field measurement of amplitude and phase in silicon waveguides with liquid cladding, Opt. Lett. 36(10), 1869 (2011)

[220] M. Burresi, R. J. P. Engelen, A. Opheij, D. van Oosten, D. Mori, T. Baba, and L. Kuipers, Observation of polarization singularities at the nanoscale, Phys. Rev. Lett. 102(3), 033902 (2009)

[221] N. Rotenberg, T. L. Krijger, B. Feber, M. Spasenović, F. J. G. de Abajo, and L. Kuipers, Magnetic and electric response of single subwavelength holes, Phys. Rev. B 88(24), 241408 (2013)

[222] M. Burresi, D. van Oosten, T. Kampfrath, H. Schoenmaker, R. Heideman, A. Leinse, and L. Kuipers, Probing the magnetic field of light at optical frequencies, Science 326(5952), 550 (2009)

[223] M. Burresi, T. Kampfrath, D. van Oosten, J. C. Prangsma, B. S. Song, S. Noda, and L. Kuipers, Magnetic light-matter interactions in a photonic crystal nanocavity, Phys. Rev. Lett. 105(12), 123901 (2010)

[224] S. Vignolini, F. Intonti, F. Riboli, L. Balet, L. H. Li, M. Francardi, A. Gerardino, A. Fiore, D. S. Wiersma, and M. Gurioli, Magnetic imaging in photonic crystal microcavities, Phys. Rev. Lett. 105(12), 123902 (2010)

[225] M. Spasenović, D. M. Beggs, P. Lalanne, T. F. Krauss, and L. Kuipers, Measuring the spatial extent of individual localized photonic states, Phys. Rev. B 86(15), 155153 (2012)

[226] S. R. Huisman, G. Ctistis, S. Stobbe, A. P. Mosk, J. L. Herek, A. Lagendijk, P. Lodahl, W. L. Vos, and P. W. H. Pinkse, Measurement of a band-edge tail in the density of states of a photonic-crystal waveguide, Phys. Rev. B 86(15), 155154 (2012)

[227] D. Denkova, N. Verellen, A. V. Silhanek, V. K. Valev, P. V. Dorpe, and V. V. Moshchalkov, Mapping magnetic near-field distributions of plasmonic nanoantennas, ACS Nano 7(4), 3168 (2013)

[228] D. Denkova, N. Verellen, A. V. Silhanek, P. Van Dorpe, and V. V. Moshchalkov, Lateral magnetic near-field imaging of plasmonic nanoantennas with increasing complexity, Small 10(10), 1959 (2014)

[229] H. W. Kihm, S. M. Koo, Q. H. Kim, K. Bao, J. E. Kihm, W. S. Bak, S. H. Eah, C. Lienau, H. Kim, P. Nordlander, N. J. Halas, N. K. Park, and D. S. Kim, Bethe-hole polarization analyser for the magnetic vector of light, Nat. Commun. 2, 451 (2011)

[230] H. W. Kihm, J. Kim, S. Koo, J. Ahn, K. Ahn, K. Lee, N. Park, and D. S. Kim, Optical magnetic field mapping using a subwavelength aperture, Opt. Express 21(5), 5625 (2013)

[231] B. le Feber, N. Rotenberg, D. M. Beggs, and L. Kuipers, Simultaneous measurement of nanoscale electric and magnetic optical fields, Nat. Photonics 8(1), 43 (2014)

[232] N. Caselli, F. La China, W. Bao, F. Riboli, A. Gerardino, L. Li, E. H. Linfield, F. Pagliano, A. Fiore, P. J. Schuck, S. Cabrini, A. Weber-Bargioni, M. Gurioli, and F. Intonti, Deep-subwavelength imaging of both electric and magnetic localized optical fields by plasmonic campanile nanoantenna, Sci. Rep. 5, 9606 (2015)

[233] H. U. Yang, R. L. Olmon, K. S. Deryckx, X. G. Xu, H. A. Bechtel, Y. Xu, B. A. Lail, and M. B. Raschke, Accessing the optical magnetic near-field through Babinet’s principle, ACS Photonics 1(9), 894 (2014)

[234] L. Novotny, R. X. Bian, and X. S. Xie, Theory of nanometric optical tweezers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79(4), 645 (1997)

[235] J. Berthelot, S. S. Acimovic, M. L. Juan, M. P. Kreuzer, J. Renger, and R. Quidant, Three-dimensional manipulation with scanning near-field optical nanotweezers, Nat. Nanotechnol. 9(4), 295 (2014)

[236] R. M. Gelfand, S. Wheaton, and R. Gordon, Cleaved fiber optic double nanohole optical tweezers for trapping nanoparticles, Opt. Lett. 39(22), 6415 (2014)

[237] J. Jose, S. Kress, A. Barik, L. M. Otto, J. Shaver, T. W. Johnson, Z. J. Lapin, P. Bharadwaj, L. Novotny, and S. H. Oh, Individual template-stripped conductive gold pyramids for tip-enhanced dielectrophoresis, ACS Photonics 1(5), 464 (2014)

[238] N. M. Hameed, A. El Eter, T. Grosjean, and F. I. Baida, Stand-alone three-dimensional optical tweezers based on fibred Bowtie nanoaperture, IEEE Photonics J. 6(4), 4500510 (2014)

[239] S. Wheaton, R. M. Gelfand, and R. Gordon, Probing the Raman-active acoustic vibrations of nanoparticles with extraordinary spectral resolution, Nat. Photonics 9(1), 68 (2015)

[240] A. A. AlBalushi and R. Gordon, A label-free Untethered approach to single-molecule protein binding kinetics, Nano Lett. 14(10), 5787 (2014)

[241] H. K. Wickramasinghe, M. Chaigneau, R. Yasukuni, G. Picardi, and R. Ossikovski, Billion-fold increase in tip-enhanced Raman signal, ACS Nano 8(4), 3421 (2014)

[242] I. Rajapaksa, K. Uenal, and H. K. Wickramasinghe, Image force microscopy of molecular resonance: A microscope principle, Appl. Phys. Lett. 97(7), 073121 (2010)

[243] J. Jahng, J. Brocious, D. A. Fishman, F. Huang, X. Li, V. A. Tamma, H. K. Wickramasinghe, and E. O. Potma, Gradient and scattering forces in photoinduced force microscopy, Phys. Rev. B 90(15), 155417 (2014)

[244] J. Jahng, J. Brocious, D. A. Fishman, S. Yampolsky, D. Nowak, F. Huang, V. A. Apkarian, H. K. Wickramasinghe, and E. O. Potma, Ultrafast pump-probe force microscopy with nanoscale resolution, Appl. Phys. Lett. 106(8), 083113 (2015)

[245] R. M. Gelfand, A. Bonakdar, O. G. Memis, and H. Mohseni, Super resolution mapping of the near optical field and the gradient optical force, Proc. SPIE 8815, Nanoimaging and Nanospectroscopy 8815, 88150R (2013)

[246] A. Giugni, B. Torre, A. Toma, M. Francardi, M. Malerba, A. Alabastri, R. P. Zaccaria, M. I. Stockman, and E. Di Fabrizio, Hot-electron nanoscopy using adiabatic compression of surface plasmons, Nat. Nanotechnol. 8(11), 845 (2013)

[247] P. J. Schuck, Nanoimaging: Hot electrons go through the barrier, Nat. Nanotechnol. 8(11), 799 (2013)

[248] A. O. Govorov, H. Zhang, and Y. K. Gun'ko, Theory of photoinjection of hot plasmonic carriers from metal nanostructures into semiconductors and surface molecules, J. Phys. Chem. C 117(32), 16616 (2013)

[249] A. Polyakov, C. Senft, K. F. Thompson, J. Feng, S. Cabrini, P. J. Schuck, H. A. Padmore, S. J. Peppernick, and W. P. Hess, Plasmon-enhanced photocathode for high brightness and high repetition rate X-ray sources, Phys. Rev. Lett. 110(7), 076802 (2013)

[250] W. A. Challener, C. Peng, A. V. Itagi, D. Karns, W. Peng, Y. Peng, X. Yang, X. Zhu, N. J. Gokemeijer, Y. T. Hsia, G. Ju, R. E. Rottmayer, M. A. Seigler, and E. C. Gage, Heat-assisted magnetic recording by a near-field transducer with efficient optical energy transfer, Nat. Photonics 3(4), 220 (2009)

[251] B. C. Stipe, T. C. Strand, C. C. Poon, H. Balamane, T. D. Boone, J. A. Katine, J. L. Li, V. Rawat, H. Nemoto, A. Hirotsune, O. Hellwig, R. Ruiz, E. Dobisz, D. S. Kercher, N. Robertson, T. R. Albrecht, and B. D. Terris, Magnetic recording at 1.5 Pb m^-2 using an integrated plasmonic antenna, Nat. Photonics 4(7), 484 (2010)

[252] R. Vincent, H. Marinchio, J. J. Saenz, and R. Carminati, Local control of the excitation of surface plasmon polaritons by near-field magneto-optical Kerr effect, Phys. Rev. B 90(24), 241412 (2014)

[253] P. S. Keatley, A. Aziz, M. Ali, B. J. Hickey, M. G. Blamire, and R. J. Hicken, Optical characterization of nonlocal spin transfer torque acting on a single nanomagnet, Phys. Rev. B 89(9), 094421 (2014)

[254] P. Biagioni, J. S. Huang, L. Duo, M. Finazzi, and B. Hecht, Cross resonant optical antenna, Phys. Rev. Lett. 102(25), 256801 (2009)

[255] Z. Zhang, A. Weber-Bargioni, S. W. Wu, S. Dhuey, S. Cabrini, and P. J. Schuck, Manipulating nanoscale light fields with the asymmetric Bowtie nano-colorsorter, Nano Lett. 9(12), 4505 (2009)

[256] A. McLeod, A. Weber-Bargioni, Z. Zhang, S. Dhuey, B. Harteneck, J. B. Neaton, S. Cabrini, and P. J. Schuck, Nonperturbative visualization of nanoscale plasmonic field distributions via photon localization microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 106(3), 037402 (2011)

[257] P. Biagioni, M. Savoini, J. S. Huang, L. Duo, M. Finazzi, and B. Hecht, Near-field polarization shaping by a near-resonant plasmonic cross antenna, Phys. Rev. B 80(15), 153409 (2009)

[258] D. Lin and J. S. Huang, Slant-gap plasmonic nanoantennas for optical chirality engineering and circular dichroism enhancement, Opt. Express 22(7), 7434 (2014)

[259] Y. Tang and A. E. Cohen, Enhanced enantioselectivity in excitation of chiral molecules by superchiral light, Science 332(6027), 333 (2011)

[260] E. Hendry, T. Carpy, J. Johnston, M. Popland, R. V. Mikhaylovskiy, A. J. Lapthorn, S. M. Kelly, L. D. Barron, N. Gadegaard, and M. Kadodwala, Ultrasensitive detection and characterization of biomolecules using superchiral fields, Nat. Nanotechnol. 5(11), 783 (2010)

[261] B. le Feber, N. Rotenberg, and L. Kuipers, Nanophotonic control of circular dipole emission, Nat. Commun. 6, 6695 (2015)

[262] I. Söllner, S. Mahmoodian, S. L. Hansen, L. Midolo, A. Javadi, G. Kiršanskė, T. Pregnolato, H. El-Ella, E. H. Lee, J. D. Song, S. Stobbe, and P. Lodahl, Deterministic photon–emitter coupling in chiral photonic circuits, Nat. Nanotechnol. 10(9), 775 (2015)

[263] J. Rudge, H. Xu, J. Kolthammer, Y. K. Hong, and B. C. Choi, Sub-nanosecond time-resolved near-field scanning magneto-optical microscope, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 86(2), 023703 (2015)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg