Review of materials used in laser-aided additive manufacturing processes to produce metallic products

Abstract

Rapid prototyping (RP) or layered manufacturing (LM) technologies have been extensively used to manufacture prototypes composed mainly of plastics, polymers, paper, and wax due to the short product development time and low costs of these technologies. However, such technologies, with the exception of selective laser melting and sintering, are not used to fabricate metallic products because of the resulting poor life, short cycle, poor surface finish, and low structural integrity of the fabricated parts. The properties endowed by these parts do not match those of functional parts. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted to develop new additive manufacturing (AM) technologies by extending existing RP technologies. Several AM technologies have been developed for the fabrication of metallic objects. These technologies utilize materials, such as Ni-, Al-, and Ti-based alloys and stainless steel powders, to fabricate high-quality functional components. The present work reviews the type of materials used in laser-based AM processes for the manufacture of metallic products. The advantages and disadvantages of processes and different materials are summarized, and future research directions are discussed in the final section. This review can help experts select the ideal type of process or technology for the manufacturing of elements composed of a given alloy or material (Ni, Ti, Al, Pb, and stainless steel).

Keywords

direct metal deposition / laser-based manufacturing / rapid manufacturing / selective laser melting / additive manufacturing

References

[1] Forno A J D, Pereira F A, Forcellini F A, Value stream mapping: A study about the problems and challenges found in the literature from the past 15 years about application of lean tools. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2014, 72(5–8): 779–790

[2] Govindan K, Rajendran S, Sarkis J, Multi criteria decision making approaches for green supplier evaluation and selection: A literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2015, 98: 66–83

[3] Yan X, Gu P. A review of rapid prototyping technologies and systems. Computer Aided Design, 1996, 28(4): 307–318

[4] Dickens P. Research developments in rapid prototyping. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part B, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 1995, 209(4): 261–266

[5] Simchi A, Petzoldt F, Pohl H. On the development of direct metal laser sintering for rapid tooling. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2003, 141(3): 319–328

[6] Wohlers T T. Worldwide development & trends in rapid prototyping and manufacturing. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing. Beijing, 1998

[7] Xie J, Fox P, O’neill W, Effect of direct laser re-melting processing parameters and scanning strategies on the densification of tool steels. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2005, 170(3): 516–523

[8] Zhang K, Liu W, Shang X. Research on the processing experiments of laser metal deposition shaping. Optics & Laser Technology, 2007, 39(3): 549–557

[9] Moghaddam N S, Jahadakbar A, Amerinatanzi A. Recent advances in laser-based additive manufacturing. In: Bian L, Shamsaei N, Usher J, eds. Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metal Parts: Modeling, Optimization, and Control of Mechanical Properties.Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2017, 1–24

[10] Unocic R, Dupont J. Composition control in the direct laser-deposition process. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions. B, Process Metallurgy and Materials Processing Science, 2003, 34(4): 439–445

[11] Wee L, Li L. Multiple-layer laser direct writing metal deposition in electrolyte solution. Applied Surface Science, 2005, 247(1–4): 285–293

[12] Hua G, Zhao J, Zhang J, Rapid manufacturing of metal parts. Journal of Southeast University, 2002, 18: 123–127

[13] Wohlert M, Bourell D L, Das S, Applications of powder densification maps to direct metal SLS/HIP processing. In: Proceedings of Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. 2000, 150–158

[14] Das S, Beama J J, Wohlert M, Direct laser freeform fabrication of high performance metal components. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 1998, 4(3): 112–117

[15] Choi D S, Lee S, Shin B, Development of a direct metal freeform fabrication technique using CO₂ laser welding and milling technology. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2001, 113(1–3): 273–279

[16] Pan H, Zhou T. Generation and optimization of slice profile data in rapid prototyping and manufacturing. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2007, 187–188: 623–626

[17] Huang S H, Liu P, Mokasdar A, Additive manufacturing and its societal impact: A literature review. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2013, 4: 1–13

[18] Chen L, He Y, Yang Y, The research status and development trend of additive manufacturing technology. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2017, 89(9–12): 3651–3660

[19] Mohan N, Senthil P, Vinodh S, A review on composite materials and process parameters optimisation for the fused deposition modelling process. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2017, 12(1): 47–59

[20] Greul M, Pintat T, Greulich M. Rapid prototyping of functional metallic parts. Computers in Industry, 1995, 28(1): 23–28

[21] Bártolo P J D S, Batista F D C. Virtual Modelling and Rapid Manufacturing. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis Group, 2006

[22] Skardal A, Atala A. Biomaterials for integration with 3-D bioprinting. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 2015, 43(3): 730–746

[23] Boparai K S, Singh R, Singh H. Development of rapid tooling using fused deposition modeling: A review. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2016, 22(2): 281–299

[24] Patil S N, Mulay A V, Ahuja B B. Development of experimental setup of metal rapid prototyping machine using selective laser sintering technique. Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India): Series C, 2018, 99(2): 159–167

[25] Sapate K D, Apte T U. Metal fabrication by additive manufacturing. International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology, 2017, 7(1): 9–14

[26] Blackwell P, Wisbey A. Laser-aided manufacturing technologies; their application to the near-net shape forming of a high-strength titanium alloy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2005, 170(1–2): 268–276

[27] Horii T, Kirihara S, Miyamoto Y. Freeform fabrication of Ti-Al alloys by 3D micro-welding. Intermetallics, 2008, 16(11–12): 1245–1249

[28] Spencer J, Dickens P, Wykes C. Rapid prototyping of metal parts by three-dimensional welding. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part B, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 1998, 212(3): 175–182

[29] Klingbeil N, Beuth J, Chin R, Residual stress-induced warping in direct metal solid freeform fabrication. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2002, 44(1): 57–77

[30] Mazumder J, Dutta D, Kikuchi N, Closed loop direct metal deposition: Art to part. Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 2000, 34(4–6): 397–414

[31] Designation A S T M. F2792-12a. Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies. ISO 10303. West Conshohocken: ASTM International, 2012

[32] Karunakaran K, Suryakumar S, Pushpa V, Retrofitment of a CNC machine for hybrid layered manufacturing. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2009, 45(7–8): 690–703

[33] Kruth J P, Froyen L, Van Vaerenbergh J, Selective laser melting of iron-based powder. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2004, 149(1–3): 616–622

[34] Levy G N, Schindel R, Kruth J P. Rapid manufacturing and rapid tooling with layer manufacturing (LM) technologies, state of the art and future perspectives. CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Techno-logy, 2003, 52(2): 589–609

[35] Yan J, Battiato I, Fadel G. Design of injection nozzle in direct metal deposition (DMD) manufacturing of thin-walled structures based on 3D models. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2016, 5: 1–12

[36] Laeng J, Stewart J, Liou F W. Laser metal forming processes for rapid prototyping—A review. International Journal of Production Research, 2000, 38(16): 3973–3996

[37] Bernard A, Taillandier G, Karunakaran K. Evolutions of rapid product development with rapid manufacturing: Concepts and applications. International Journal of Rapid Manufacturing, 2009, 1(1): 3–18

[38] Ferreira J, Bártolo P J D S, Alves N, Rapid metal casting—A review of present status. Virtual and Rapid Manufacturing: Advanced Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototyping, 2007, 469: 1–7

[39] Song L, Mazumder J. US Patent, 9044827, 2015-06-02

[40] Zhang J, Liou F, Seufzer W, A coupled finite element cellular automaton model to predict thermal history and grain morphology of Ti-6Al-4V during direct metal deposition (DMD). Additive Manufacturing, 2016, 11: 32–39

[41] Aboulkhair N T, Everitt N M, Ashcroft I, Reducing porosity in AlSi10Mg parts processed by selective laser melting. Additive Manufacturing, 2014, 1–4: 77–86

[42] Singh S, Kumar M, Sodhi G P S, Development of thick copper claddings on SS316L steel for in-vessel components of fusion reactors and copper-cast iron canisters. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2018, 128: 126–137

[43] Islam M, Purtonen T, Piili H, Temperature profile and imaging analysis of laser additive manufacturing of stainless steel. Physics Procedia, 2013, 41: 835–842

[44] Khan S Z, Masood S H, Cottam R. Mechanical properties of a novel plymetal manufactured by laser-assisted direct metal deposition. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2017, 91(5–8): 1839–1849

[45] Yakout M, Cadamuro A, Elbestawi M A, The selection of process parameters in additive manufacturing for aerospace alloys. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2017, 5: 1–18

[46] Zhang Y, Xiu P, Jia Z, Effect of vanadium released from micro-arc oxidized porous Ti6Al4V on biocompatibility in orthopedic applications. Colloids and Surfaces. B, Biointerfaces, 2018, 169: 366–374

[47] Srivastava A K, Pavel R. Grinding investigations of Ti-6Al-4V parts produced using direct metal laser sintering technology. International Journal of Mechatronics and Manufacturing Systems, 2015, 8(5–6): 223–242

[48] Baufeld B, Van Der Biest O, Dillien S. Texture and crystal orientation in Ti-6Al-4V builds fabricated by shaped metal deposition. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions. A, Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, 2010, 41(8): 1917–1927

[49] Miranda R, Lopes G, Quintino L, Rapid prototyping with high power fiber lasers. Materials & Design, 2008, 29(10): 2072–2075

[50] Wang T, Zhu Y Y, Zhang S Q, Grain morphology evolution behavior of titanium alloy components during laser melting deposition additive manufacturing. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2015, 632: 505–513

[51] Liu Q, Wang Y, Zheng H, TC17 titanium alloy laser melting deposition repair process and properties. Optics & Laser Technology, 2016, 82: 1–9

[52] Gibson I, Rosen D, Stucker B. Additive Manufacturing Techno-logies: 3D Printing, Rapid Prototyping, and Direct Digital Manufacturing. New York: Springer, 2015

[53] Lopes G, Williams S, Miranda R, Additive manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V based components with high power fiber lasers. In: Bártolo P J D S, Jorge M A, Batista F D C, et al., ed. Virtual and Rapid Manufacturing: Advanced Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototyping. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2007, 369–374

[54] Biffi C A, Demir A G, Coduri M, Laves phases in selective laser melted TiCr1.78 alloys for hydrogen storage. Materials Letters, 2018, 226: 71–74

[55] Rolchigo M R, LeSar R. Modeling of binary alloy solidification under conditions representative of additive manufacturing. Computational Materials Science, 2018, 150: 535–545

[56] Mizuta N, Matsuura K, Kirihara S, Titanium aluminide coating on titanium surface using three-dimensional microwelder. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2008, 492(1–2): 199–204

[57] Katou M, Oh J, Miyamoto Y, Freeform fabrication of titanium metal and intermetallic alloys by three-dimensional micro welding. Materials & Design, 2007, 28(7): 2093–2098

[58] Rahmati S, Farahmand F, Abbaszadeh F. Application of rapid prototyping for development of custom-made orthopedics prostheses: An investigative study. International Journal of Advanced Design and Manufacturing Technology, 2011, 3: 11–16

[59] Sing S L, Yeong W Y, Wiria F E. Selective laser melting of titanium alloy with 50 wt% tantalum: Microstructure and mechanical properties. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016, 660: 461–470

[60] Wu W, Tor S B, Leong K F, State of the art review on selective laser melting of stainless steel for future applications in the marine Industry. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Progress in Additive Manufacturing (Pro-AM 2016). Singapore, 2016, 475–481

[61] Everton S K, Hirsch M, Stravroulakis P, Review of in-situ process monitoring and in-situ metrology for metal additive manufacturing. Materials & Design, 2016, 95: 431–445

[62] Fayazfar H, Salarian M, Rogalsky A, A critical review of powder-based additive manufacturing of ferrous alloys: Process parameters, microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials & Design, 2018, 144: 98–128

[63] Charmeux J, Minev R, Dimov S, Benchmarking of three processes for producing castings incorporating micro/mesoscale features with a high aspect ratio. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part B, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2007, 221(4): 577–588

[64] Bibb R, Eggbeer D, Evans P, Rapid manufacture of custom-fitting surgical guides. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2009, 15(5): 346–354

[65] Aiyiti W, Zhao W, Lu B, Investigation of the overlapping parameters of MPAW-based rapid prototyping. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2006, 12(3): 165–172

[66] España F A, Balla V K, Bandyopadhyay A. Laser surface modification of AISI 410 stainless steel with brass for enhanced thermal properties. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2010, 204(15): 2510–2517

[67] Joo S, Baldwin D F. Advanced package prototyping using nano-particle silver printed interconnects. IEEE Transactions on Electronics Packaging Manufacturing, 2010, 33(2): 129–134

[68] Qi H, Yan Y, Lin F, Scanning method of filling lines in electron beam selective melting. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part B, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2007, 221(12): 1685–1694

[69] Deng Q L, Xie A N, Ge Z J, Experimental researches on rapid forming full compacted metal parts by selective laser melting. Materials Science Forum, 2006, 532–533: 428–431

[70] Fu G, Tor S, Loh N, A micro powder injection molding apparatus for high aspect ratio metal micro-structure production. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, 2007, 17(9): 1803–1809

[71] Ghany K A, Moustafa S F. Comparison between the products of four RPM systems for metals. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2006, 12(2): 86–94

[72] Mughal M, Fawad H, Mufti R. Three-dimensional finite-element modelling of deformation in weld-based rapid prototyping. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part C, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, 2006, 220(6): 875–885

[73] Casavola C, Campanelli S, Pappalettere C. Preliminary investigation on distribution of residual stress generated by the selective laser melting process. Journal of Strain Analysis for Engineering Design, 2009, 44(1): 93–104

[74] Costa L, Rajput D, Lansford K, The tower nozzle solid freeform fabrication technique. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2010, 16(4): 295–301

[75] Yan C, Hao L, Hussein A, Advanced lightweight 316L stainless steel cellular lattice structures fabricated via selective laser melting. Materials & Design, 2014, 55: 533–541

[76] Khairallah S A, Anderson A. Mesoscopic simulation model of selective laser melting of stainless steel powder. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2014, 214(11): 2627–2636

[77] Cherry J A, Davies H M, Mehmood S, Investigation into the effect of process parameters on microstructural and physical properties of 316L stainless steel parts by selective laser melting. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2015, 76(5–8): 869–879

[78] Trevisan F, Calignano F, Lorusso M, On the selective laser melting (SLM) of the AlSi10Mg alloy: Process, microstructure, and mechanical properties. Materials (Basel), 2017, 10(1): 76

[79] Tucho W H, Lysne V, Austbø H, Investigation of effects of process parameters on microstructure and hardness of SLM manufactured SS316L. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2018, 740: 910–925

[80] Bartolomeu F, Buciumeanu M, Pinto E, 316L stainless steel mechanical and tribological behavior—A comparison between selective laser melting, hot pressing and conventional casting. Additive Manufacturing, 2017, 16: 81–89

[81] Kong D, Ni X, Dong C, Heat treatment effect on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel fabricated by selective laser melting for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Electrochimica Acta, 2018, 276: 293–303

[82] Sudhakar K V, Rawn P, Coguill R, Mechanical properties and microstructure evaluation of biomaterial grade 316L stainless steel produced by additive manufacturing. European Journal of Advances in Engineering and Technology, 2018, 5(2): 106–112

[83] Shamsaei N, Yadollahi A, Bian L, An overview of direct laser deposition for additive manufacturing; Part II: Mechanical behavior, process parameter optimization and control. Additive Manufacturing, 2015, 8: 12–35

[84] Segerstark A, Andersson J, Svensson L E. Evaluation of the effect of process parameters on microstructural characteristics in laser metal deposition of alloy 718. Journal of Optics and Laser Technology, 2015, 93(8): 1483–1489

[85] Lewandowski J J, Seifi M. Metal additive manufacturing: A review of mechanical properties. Annual Review of Materials Research, 2016, 46(1): 151–186

[86] Qian Y P, Huang J H, Zhang H O, Direct rapid high-temperature alloy prototyping by hybrid plasma-laser technology. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2008, 208(1–3): 99–104

[87] Dinda G, Dasgupta A, Mazumder J. Laser aided direct metal deposition of Inconel 625 superalloy: Microstructural evolution and thermal stability. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2009, 509(1–2): 98–104

[88] Horii T, Kirihara S, Miyamoto Y. Freeform fabrication of superalloy objects by 3D micro welding. Materials & Design, 2009, 30(4): 1093–1097

[89] Minagawa K, Kakisawa H, Takamori S, Application of 3-dimensional powder laminating fabrication to metallic components. Materials Science Forum, 2007, 539–543

[90] Osakada K, Shiomi M. Flexible manufacturing of metallic products by selective laser melting of powder. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2006, 46(11): 1188–1193

[91] Angelastro A, Campanelli S L, Ludovico A D. Characterization of Colmonoy 227-F samples obtained by direct laser metal deposition. Advanced Materials Research, 2010, 83: 842–849

[92] Gordon L, Bouwhuis B, Suralvo M, Micro-truss nanocrystalline Ni hybrids. Acta Materialia, 2009, 57(3): 932–939

[93] Dressler M, Röllig M, Schmidt M, Temperature distribution in powder beds during 3D printing. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2010, 16(5): 328–336

[94] Hanumaiah N, Ravi B. Rapid tooling form accuracy estimation using region elimination adaptive search based sampling technique. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2007, 13(3): 182–190

[95] Chen B, Mazumder J. Role of process parameters during additive manufacturing by direct metal deposition of Inconel 718. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2017, 23(5): 919–929

[96] Singh A, Ramakrishnan A, Baker D, Laser metal deposition of nickel coated Al 7050 alloy. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2017, 719: 151–158

[97] Bi G, Gasser A. Restoration of nickel-base turbine blade knife-edges with controlled laser aided additive manufacturing. Physics Procedia, 2011, 12: 402–409

[98] Kanagarajah P, Brenne F, Niendorf T, Inconel 939 processed by selective laser melting: Effect of microstructure and temperature on the mechanical properties under static and cyclic loading. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2013, 588: 188–195

[99] Nie P, Ojo O A, Li Z. Numerical modeling of microstructure evolution during laser additive manufacturing of a nickel-based superalloy. Acta Materialia, 2014, 77: 85–95

[100] Sateesh N H, Kumar G C M, Krishna P. Influence of Ni-P coated SiC and laser scan speed on the microstructure and mechanical properties of IN625 metal matrix composites. Lasers in Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 2015, 2(4): 187–198

[101] Marattukalam J J, Singh A K, Datta S, Microstructure and corrosion behavior of laser processed NiTi alloy. Materials Science and Engineering C, 2015, 57: 309–313

[102] Hong C, Gu D, Dai D, Laser additive manufacturing of ultrafine TiC particle reinforced Inconel 625 based composite parts: Tailored microstructures and enhanced performance. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2015, 635: 118–128

[103] Klapper H S, Burns M, Molodtsov N, Critical factors affecting the pitting corrosion resistance of additively manufactured Ni-based alloy in chloride containing environments. In: Proceedings of NACE-2017-9345. NACE International, 2017

[104] Olakanmi E O T, Cochrane R F, Dalgarno K W. A review on selective laser sintering/melting (SLS/SLM) of aluminium alloy powders: Processing, microstructure, and properties. Progress in Materials Science, 2015, 74: 401–477

[105] Bassoli E, Atzeni E. Direct metal rapid casting: Mechanical optimization and tolerance calculation. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2009, 15(4): 238–243

[106] Bassoli E, Gatto A, Iuliano L, 3D printing technique applied to rapid casting. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2007, 13(3): 148–155

[107] Gill S S, Kaplas M. Comparative study of 3D printing technologies for rapid casting of aluminium alloy. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 2009, 24(12): 1405–1411

[108] Kang H J, Ahn S H. Fabrication and characterization of microparts by mechanical micromachining: Precision and cost estimation. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part B, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2007, 221(2): 231–240

[109] Pal D, Bhargava L, Ravi B, Computer-aided reverse engineering for rapid replacement of parts. Defence Science Journal, DESSIDOC, 2006, 56(2): 225–238

[110] Hsu C, Huang C, Tzou G. Using metallic resin and aluminum alloy molds to manufacture propellers with RP/RT technique. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2008, 14(2): 102–107

[111] Mondal B, Kundu S, Lohar A K, Net-shape manufacturing of intricate components of A356/SiCp composite through rapid-prototyping-integrated investment casting. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2008, 498(1–2): 37–41

[112] Yan C, Hao L, Hussein A, Microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminium alloy cellular lattice structures manufactured by direct metal laser sintering. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2015, 628: 238–246

[113] Prashanth K G, Shakur-Shahabi H, Attar H, Production of high strength Al₈₅Nd₈Ni₅Co₂ alloy by selective laser melting. Additive Manufacturing, 2015, 6: 1–5

[114] Kenel C, Schloth P, Van-Petegem S, In situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction and small angle X-ray scattering studies on rapidly heated and cooled Ti-Al and Al-Cu-Mg alloys using laser-based heating. JOM, 2016, 68(3): 978–984

[115] Cabrini M, Lorenzi S, Pastore T, Evaluation of corrosion resistance of Al-10Si-Mg alloy obtained by means of direct metal laser sintering. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2016, 231: 326–335

[116] Caiazzo F, Caggiano A. Laser direct metal deposition of 2024 Al alloy: Trace geometry prediction via machine learning. Materials (Basel), 2018, 11(3): 444

[117] Vora P, Martinez R, Hopkinson N, Customised alloy blends for in-situ Al339 alloy formation using anchorless selective laser melting. Technologies, 2017, 5(2): 24

[118] Kim M S, Chu W S, Kim Y M, Direct metal printing of 3D electrical circuit using rapid prototyping. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, 2009, 10: 147–150

[119] Vaezi M, Chianrabutra S, Mellor B, Multiple material additive manufacturing—Part 1: A review. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2013, 8(1): 19–50

[120] Gao S, Yao Y, Cui C. Vibrating breakup of jet for uniform metal droplets. Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 2007, 23: 135–138

[121] Hsiao W K, Chun J H, Saka N. Effect of surface roughness on droplet bouncing in droplet-based manufacturing processes. CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology, 2006, 55(1): 209–212

[122] Aghanajafi C, Daneshmand S. Integration of three-dimensional printing technology for wind-tunnel model fabrication. Journal of Aircraft, 2010, 47(6): 2130–2135

[123] Baptista R, Silva M B, Saraiva C. Developments for rapid tooling application in sheet metal forming. Materials Science Forum, 2006, 514–516: 1516–1520

[124] Karunakaran K, Suryakumar S, Pushpa V, Low cost integration of additive and subtractive processes for hybrid layered manufacturing. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2010, 26(5): 490–499

[125] Milovanovic J, Stojkovic M, Trajanovic M. Rapid tooling of tyre tread ring mould using direct metal laser sintering. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 2009, 68(12): 1038–1042

[126] Pacurar R, Balc N, Prem F. Research on how to improve the accuracy of the SLM metallic parts. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2011, 1353(1): 1385

[127] Piqué A, Charipar N A, Kim H, Applications of laser direct-write for embedding microelectronics. Proceedings Volume 6606, Advanced Laser Technologies, 2007, 66060R

[128] Piqué A, Chrisey D B. Direct-Write Technologies for Rapid Prototyping Applications: Sensors, Electronics, and Integrated Power Sources. Salt Lake City: Academic Press, 2002

[129] Monzón M, Hernández P M, Marrero M D, New development in computer aided electroforming for rapid prototyping applications. In: Proceedings of ASME 2008 9th Biennial Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis, Volume 1: Advanced Energy Systems; Advanced and Digital Manufacturing; Advanced Materials; Aerospace. Haifa: ASME, 2008, 179–184

[130] Meier H, Haberland C. Experimental studies on selective laser melting of metallic parts. Materials Science and Engineering, 2008, 39(9): 665–670

[131] Berce P, Chezan H, Balc N. The application of rapid prototyping technologies for manufacturing the custom implants. In: Proceedings of ESAFORM Conference. Cluj-Napoca, 2005, 679–682

[132] Chen J, Yang J, Zuo T. Micro fabrication with selective laser micro sintering. In: Proceedings of the 1st IEEE International Conference on Nano/Micro Engineered and Molecular Systems. Zhuhai: IEEE, 2006, 426–429

[133] Chen G, Xiong Z, Lu Y, Study on direct laser fabrication of Nd:YAG. SPIE Proceedings Vol. 6423: International Conference on Smart Materials and Nanotechnology in Engineering, 2007, 64234T

[134] Dingal S, Pradhan T, Sundar J K S, The application of Taguchi’s method in the experimental investigation of the laser sintering process. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2008, 38(9–10): 904–914

[135] Fina F, Goyanes A, Madla C M, 3D printing of drug-loaded gyroid lattices using selective laser sintering. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 2018, 547(1–2): 44–52

[136] Shuai C, He C, Feng P, Biodegradation mechanisms of selective laser-melted Mg-xAl-Zn alloy: Grain size and intermetallic phase. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2018, 13(2): 59–69

[137] Shuai C, Xue L, Gao C, Selective laser melting of Zn-Ag alloys for bone repair: Microstructure, mechanical properties and degradation behaviour. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2018, 13(3): 146–154

[138] Long T, Zhang X, Huang Q, Novel Mg-based alloys by selective laser melting for biomedical applications: Microstructure evolution, microhardness and in vitro degradation behaviour. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2018, 13(2): 71–81

[139] Osakada K, Shiomi M. Flexible manufacturing of metallic products by selective laser melting of powder. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2006, 46(11): 1188–1193

[140] Gordon L, Bouwhuis B, Suralvo M, Micro-truss nanocrystalline Ni hybrids. Acta Materialia, 2009, 57(3): 932–939

[141] Chatterjee A, Kumar S, Saha P, An experimental design approach to selective laser sintering of low carbon steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2003, 136(1–3): 151–157

[142] Garg A, Tai K. A hybrid genetic programming—Artificial neural network approach for modeling of vibratory finishing process. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Intelligent Computing. Singapore: IACSIT Press, 2011, 14–19

[143] Hsu K, Gupta H V, Sorooshian S. Artificial neural network modeling of the rainfall-runoff process. Water Resources Research, 1995, 31(10): 2517–2530

[144] Hearst M A, Dumais S, Osman E, Support vector machines. IEEE Intelligent Systems and their Applications, 1998, 13(4): 18–28

[145] Bhattacharya B, Solomatine D. Neural networks and M5 model trees in modelling water level-discharge relationship. Neurocomputing, 2005, 63: 381–396

[146] Deb K, Pratap A, Agarwal S, A fast and elitist multiobjective genetic algorithm: NSGA-II. Evolutionary Computation. IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 2002, 6(2): 182–197

[147] Huang G, Min Z, Yang L, Transpiration cooling for additive manufactured porous plates with partition walls. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2018, 124: 1076–1087

[148] Murr L, Esquivel E, Quinones S, Microstructures and mechanical properties of electron beam-rapid manufactured Ti-6Al-4V biomedical prototypes compared to wrought Ti-6Al-4V. Materials Characterization, 2009, 60(2): 96–105

[149] Rajan A, Ooi M, Kuang Y C, Efficient analytical moments for the robustness analysis in design optimisation. Journal of Engineering, 2016, 2016(11): 423–430

[150] Rajan A, Ooi M, Kuang Y C, Reliability-based design optimisation of technical systems: Analytical response surface moments method. Journal of Engineering, 2017, 2017(3): 36–49

[151] Gómez A, Olmos V, Racero J, Development based on reverse engineering to manufacture aircraft custom-made parts. International Journal of Mechatronics and Manufacturing Systems, 2017, 10(1): 40–58

[152] Zhu Z, Xu W, Meng Z, Optimal trajectory and placement of a SCARA robot for natural yarns handling in the lattice distortion modification processing. International Journal of Mechatronics and Manufacturing Systems, 2015, 8(3–4): 85–101

[153] Michas S, Matsas E, Vosniakos G C. Interactive programming of industrial robots for edge tracing using a virtual reality gaming environment. International Journal of Mechatronics and Manufacturing Systems, 2017, 10(3): 237–259

[154] Murr L E, Gaytan S M, Ramirez D A, Metal fabrication by additive manufacturing using laser and electron beam melting technologies. Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 2012, 28(1): 1–14

[155] Yin S, Yan X, Chen C, Hybrid additive manufacturing of Al-Ti6Al4V functionally graded materials with selective laser melting and cold spraying. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2018, 255: 650–655

[156] Bordeenithikasem P, Shen Y, Tsai H L, Enhanced mechanical properties of additively manufactured bulk metallic glasses produced through laser foil printing from continuous sheetmetal feedstock. Additive Manufacturing, 2018, 19: 95–103

[157] Bordeenithikasem P, Stolpe M, Elsen A, Glass forming ability, flexural strength, and wear properties of additively manufactured Zr-based bulk metallic glasses produced through laser powder bed fusion. Additive Manufacturing, 2018, 21: 312–317

[158] Fera M, Fruggiero F, Lambiase A, A modified genetic algorithm for time and cost optimization of an additive manufacturing single-machine scheduling. International Journal of Industrial Engineering Computations, 2018, 9(4): 423–438