Drones of various shapes, sizes, and functionalities have emerged over the past few decades, and their civilian applications are becoming increasingly appealing. Flexible, low-cost, and high-resolution remote sensing systems that use drones as platforms are important for filling data gaps and supplementing the capabilities of crewed/manned aircraft and satellite remote sensing systems. Here, we refer to this growing remote sensing initiative as drone remote sensing and explain its unique advantages in forestry research and practices. Furthermore, we summarize the various approaches of drone remote sensing to surveying forests, mapping canopy gaps, measuring forest canopy height, tracking forest wildfires, and supporting intensive forest management. The benefits of drone remote sensing include low material and operational costs, flexible control of spatial and temporal resolution, high-intensity data collection, and the absence of risk to crews. The current forestry applications of drone remote sensing are still at an experimental stage, but they are expected to expand rapidly. To better guide the development of drone remote sensing for sustainable forestry, it is important to systematically and continuously conduct comparative studies to determine the appropriate drone remote sensing technologies for various forest conditions and/or forestry applications.

Biochar-based bioenergy production and subsequent land application of biochar can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by fixing atmospheric carbon into the soil for a long period of time. A thorough life cycle assessment of biochar-based bioenergy production and biochar land application in Northwestern Ontario is conducted using SimaPro^® Ver. 8.1. The results of energy consumption and potential environmental impact of biochar-based bioenergy production system are compared with those of conventional coal-based system. Results show that biochar land application consumes 4847.61 MJ per tonne dry feedstock more energy than conventional system, but reduces the GHG emissions by 68.19 kg CO₂e per tonne of dry feedstock in its life cycle. Biochar land application improves ecosystem quality by 18 %, reduces climate change by 15 %, and resource use by 13 % but may adversely impact on human health by increasing disability adjusted life years by 1.7 % if biomass availability is low to medium. Replacing fossil fuel with woody biomass has a positive impact on the environment, as one tonne of dry biomass feedstock when converted to biochar reduces up to 38 kg CO₂e with biochar land application despite using more energy. These results will help understand a comprehensive picture of the new interventions in forestry businesses, which are promoting biochar-based bioenergy production.

There is widespread interest in estimating and forecasting individual tree and forest growth rates for restoration and carbon sequestration objectives. Outside intensively managed forests, past attempts have been limited by the lack of accurate long-term monitoring in multi-age mixed native forests to provide estimates of both expected mean diameter increments and the statistical variation in those estimates. A dataset from Eucalyptus-dominated native forests in subtropical Queensland, Australia offers an opportunity to provide accurate estimates of tree and forest growth rates. Over 86,400 trees from 155 native species were identified and remeasured between 1936 and 2011 in 641 permanent sample plots across a 500–2000 mm mean annual rainfall gradient. Individual tree diameter at breast height (DBH) increments observed for all species ranged mainly from 0.01 to 0.5 cm yr⁻¹ (94 % of values), with consistent differences between rainfall zones (mean of 500–2000 mm yr⁻¹), and varying differences between species (155) and stem diameter class (10–100 cm). For some species, diameter increment increased progressively with rainfall (e.g. Eucalyptus siderophloia, Eucalyptus propinqua, and Lophostemon confertus), but in others (e.g. Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata, Corymbia intermedia, and Eucalyptus biturbinata) the greatest diameter increments were recorded between 1200 and 1600 mm yr⁻¹. Where there were sufficient data, most species exhibited a quadratic relationship between DBH increment and DBH class, but two species (Callitris glaucophylla and Eucalyptus crebra) native to the 500–800 mm annual rainfall zone showed linear increases in DBH increment with increasing DBH. Continued monitoring of these plots would add to their already great value.

The effect of first thinning and pruning on height, diameter at breast height (DBH), and volume growth was studied in individual trees of Pinus patula Schiede and Deppe in Chongoni Plantation, using four plots for thinning trials. Each of the plots was 0.5 ha and subjected to one of the following silvicultural treatments: first thinning and pruning, first thinning and no pruning, pruning and no thinning, and control (no pruning and no thinning). The silvicultural treatments were randomized in four replicates. Fourteen years after planting, the following parameters were measured including total height, DBH, and volume. The highest DBH and volume growth was observed in thinning and pruning, while the highest growth in height was observed where there was pruning and no thinning. Clearly, both thinning and pruning are an important management option in pine species plantations in Malawi to maximize the increase in volume productivity.

This study aimed to demonstrate change in spatial correlation between Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis Sieb. et Zucc.) and three rare species, and change in spatial distribution of four species in response to a range of selective cutting intensities. We sampled three plots of mixed Korean pine and broad-leaf forest in Lushuihe Forestry Bureau of Jilin province, China. Plot 1, a control, was unlogged Korean pine broad-leaf forest. In plots 2 and 3, Korean pine was selectively cut at 15 and 30 % intensity, respectively, in the 1970s. Other species were rarely cut. We used point-pattern analysis to research the spatial distributions of four tree species and quantify spatial correlations between Korean pine and the other three species, Amur linden (Tilia amurensis Rupr.), Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.), and Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica Fisch.) in all three plots. The results of the study show that selective cutting at 15 % intensity did not significantly change either the species spatial patterns or the spatial correlation between Korean pine and broad-leaf species. Selective cutting at 30 % intensity slightly affected the growth of Korean pine and valuable species in forest communities, and the effect was considered nondestructive and recoverable.

Culm characteristics of Melocanna baccifera, locally ‘muli’, culms at five different culm ages of 11 girth classes (5–6 to 15–16 cm) were studied from Cachar District of southern Assam, northeast India. We recorded internode length, internode diameter, number of internodes per culm, total culm height, total culm green weight and total culm volume of all five culm age classes. Data were gathered on 165 culms, each culm age class containing 33 culms with 3 culms per girth class. Culm height ranged from 3.2 to 15.3 m with highest mean of 9.15 m (in three-year old culms) and maximum culm height was recorded in four-year old culms. Highest mean and maximum internode length (27.45 and 54.2 cm, respectively), internode diameter (3.12 and 4.75 cm, respectively) and total culm green weight (5.42 and 12.87 kg/culm, respectively) were recorded in three-year old culms and lowest in current-year culms. Best fitted regression models for all parameters were developed. Significant linear relationships between culm green weight and culm solid volume were documented for all five culm age classes. Their corresponding best-fit regression models were also developed.

We used a spatio-temporal shot-noise Cox process to study the distribution of forest fires reported between 2006 and 2010 in the Mazandaran Province’s forests. The fitted model shows that daily temperature, altitude, and slope-exposure impacted fire occurrence. Forest fire occurred in the region had an aggregated behavior, which increased in radius below 1-km away from fired areas; a periodic pattern of fire occurrence in the region was verified. The risk of forest fire is significantly higher for areas with southern exposure and slope between 30° and 50°, northern exposure and slope between 0° and 50°, and eastern exposure and slope between 0° and 30°. The risk of fire was also significantly higher at altitudes between 1350 and 3000 m asl. Human causes were the main ignition source for forest fires in the region. The fire occurrence rate stayed above average during the drought period from September 2008 to September 2009. Our findings could lead to the development of fire-response and fire-suppression strategies appropriate to specific regions.

We selected 18 rotten and nine healthy postmature live standing Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) to study the correlation between the degree of tree decay and soil physical–chemical properties in the Dialing Forest District of the Xiaoxing’an Mountains, China. One transverse section of each sample tree at 40–50 cm height above the ground was tested by Resistograph to determine the inner decay status. We collected soil samples around the root zones (6–20 cm depth) of each sample tree to test the soil physical–chemical indicators including moisture content, bulk density, total porosity, pH, organic matter content, total and hydrolyzed N contents, total and available P contents, total and available K contents, and C/N ratio. The degree of decay of postmature Korean pine live standing trees was significantly and positively correlated with the C/N ratio (R = 0.838, P < 0.05), organic matter (R = 0.615, P = 0.007) and moisture content (R = 0.543, P = 0.020) of soil around the root. The contents of total N, hydrolyzed N and available P in the soil under healthy sample trees were significantly greater than those under decayed sample trees, and larger N and P contents might inhibit the decay fungi breeding in soils of pH 4.4–6.29. The optimum multiple regression equation for degree of tree decay on soil physical–chemical indicators showed that the linear correlations between the degree of decay and soil C/N ratio and pH were significant (P < 0.01) and the correlation was high (R ² = 0.778). Enhancement soil C/N ratio and pH could promote the decay of tree trunks.

A critical first step in establishing biosphere reserves—under the Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO—is to generate baseline information for future courses of action. The present study aims to assess the structure and composition of forests—along with anthropogenic pressures mounting on these forests in the buffer zone of one such biosphere reserves—the Pachmarhi biosphere reserve of India. The quadrat method was employed for sampling vegetation, and information on anthropogenic pressures was collected by conducting interviews with local people and forest officials and collecting it from secondary sources. A total of 39 tree species were sampled in 82 quadrats; of these 26 tree species were in standing stage, 25 in sapling, and 35 in seedling. Chloroxylon swietenia emerged as the most dominant tree species having highest importance value index, followed by Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, and Hardwickia binata. Nine tree species and their saplings, including Sterculia urens and Terminalia arjuna, were exploited so badly that they were only found in the seedlings stage. The unavailability of standing trees of 12 important tree species including Aegle marmelos and Phyllanthus emblica indicates the intensity and gravity of anthropogenic pressures on these important tree species. If the present anthropogenic pressure continues, which has inhibited the regeneration of several tree species, then substantial negative ecological and societal consequences can be expected.

Indirect approaches to estimation of biomass factors are often applied to measure carbon flux in the forestry sector. An assumption underlying a country-level carbon stock estimate is the representativeness of these factors. Although intensive studies have been conducted to quantify biomass factors, each study typically covers a limited geographic area. The goal of this study was to employ a meta-analysis approach to develop regional biomass factors for Quercus mongolica forests in South Korea. The biomass factors of interest were biomass conversion and expansion factor (BCEF), biomass expansion factor (BEF) and root-to-shoot ratio (RSR). Our objectives were to select probability density functions (PDFs) that best fitted the three biomass factors and to quantify their means and uncertainties. A total of 12 scientific publications were selected as data sources based on a set of criteria. From these publications we chose 52 study sites spread out across South Korea. The statistical model for the meta-analysis was a multilevel model with publication (data source) as the nesting factor specified under the Bayesian framework. Gamma, Log-normal and Weibull PDFs were evaluated. The Log-normal PDF yielded the best quantitative and qualitative fit for the three biomass factors. However, a poor fit of the PDF to the long right tail of observed BEF and RSR distributions was apparent. The median posterior estimates for means and 95 % credible intervals for BCEF, BEF and RSR across all 12 publications were 1.016 (0.800–1.299), 1.414 (1.304–1.560) and 0.260 (0.200–0.335), respectively. The Log-normal PDF proved useful for estimating carbon stock of Q. mongolica forests on a regional scale and for uncertainty analysis based on Monte Carlo simulation.

We used the forest inventory data of Gansu Province, China to quantify carbon storage and carbon density changes by regional forest cover and by typical forest types in 1979–2006. Total forest area increased from 1.77 × 10⁶ ha in 1979 to 2.32 × 10⁶ ha in 2006, and the forest carbon storage, estimated by the continuous biomass expansion factor method, increased from 83.14 to 100.66 Tg, equivalent to a carbon accumulation rate of 0.0071 Tg per year during the period. Mean carbon densities were 44.83–48.50 t ha⁻¹ and the values decreased slightly over the time period. Natural forests generated greater carbon storage and density than did plantations. By regression analysis, forest stand age was an important parameter in carbon density studies. We developed various regression equations between carbon density and stand age for major types of natural forests and plantations in the region. Our results can be used for proper selection of re-forestation species and efficient management of young and middle-aged forests, offering great potential for future carbon sequestration, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

We studied forest vegetation at Lata–Tolma–Phagti, a protected area and part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the western Himalaya. We analyzed community composition, population structure, regeneration patterns, and projected development of future compositional patterns. We sampled ten 10 × 10 m quadrat for tree species in each of 30 forest stands. We sampled shrubs in ten 5 × 5 m quadrat, and herbs in twenty 1 × 1 m quadrat within each forest stand. We recorded 248 plant species from 8 forest communities. Broadly the demographic profiles at study sites exhibited progressive structures suggesting long term persistence of the communities/species. Density–diameter distribution revealed greater proportions of seedlings and a significant decline (P < 0.05) in the proportion of trees in older age/size classes. Of the 23 recorded tree species, 13.0 % showed good, 52.2 % fair, 26.1 % poor and 8.7 % no regeneration. Differences in regeneration by species are indicative of future forest structure and dynamics. Assessment of changes in structure of forest types provides baseline data for development of priorities for conservation of other representative landscapes in the reserve as well as in the Himalaya.

We examined patterns of plant species richness on an elevation gradient and evaluated the effects of climatic variables including mean annual temperature and precipitation, area, the mid-domain effect and productivity on species richness along two transects on Mt. Seorak, South Korea. A total of 235 plant species of 72 families and 161 genera were recorded from 130 plots along the two transects. Two different patterns, monotonic decline and a unimodal shape, were observed for woody plants with the change in elevation along the two transects, whereas multimodal patterns were observed for all plant species considered together and for herbaceous plants. Area and productivity showed significant relationships with total plant richness. Climatic variables were better predictors than other variables for variation by elevation in woody plant richness, whereas productivity was a more important variable for herbaceous plant richness. Although area was an important variable for predicting species richness patterns, the effects differed by transect and plant group. No empirical evidence was linked to the mid-domain effect. Different elevational patterns may characterize different groups in the same taxon and there might be fundamental differences in the mechanisms underlying these richness patterns.

We studied the influence of east and west aspects on floristic composition, diversity, structure and treeline of afromontane cloud forests at Rira in the Bale Mountains, southeast Ethiopia. In addition, we studied how aspect relates to and/or interacts with other topographic and edaphic factors in influencing vegetation diversity. Stratified systematic plot sampling was used to survey the floristic composition, diversity and structure of forests on east- and west-facing slopes. The sample plot size was 20 × 20 m and a total of 36 plots were inventoried. A total of 72 composite soil samples were collected and analysed. Woody species richness of the forest on the east-facing slope was 1.7 times higher than on the west-facing slope. Shannon, Simpson and Log-series alpha diversity indices and evenness of forests on the east-facing slope were significantly higher than on the west-facing slope. NMDS ordination indicated that the east- and west-facing slopes formed two clusters of species and aspect explained 55.2 % and 10.4 % of the variation in species richness and abundance, respectively. There was no significant difference between aspects in stand structure except in dominant height, which was higher on the east-facing slopes. There was significant interaction between aspect and elevation in influencing woody species diversity. The four plant community groups, which were identified using cluster and indicator species analysis were represented differently on the east and west aspects. The treeline on the east-facing slope (3352 m) was located about 110 m higher than on the west-facing slope (3240 m). Soil moisture deficiency was unlikely to be a limiting factor on either site. Near the equator, east–west aspect was shown to have considerable impact on floristic composition, diversity, structure, and treeline position of montane forests. Diurnal cloud movement patterns and its impact on microclimate of slope aspect should be taken into account in future studies of cloud forest diversity, structure, and treeline position.

Prescribed fire has now become the usual management practice in the Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.) plantation in southern China. Heat generated during fire may affect carbon (C) dynamics in soils. We investigated the microbial biomass C (MBC) and microbial respiration in two Chinese fir forest soils (one is not exposed to fire for the past 88 years, and the other is recently exposed to prescribed fire) after soil heating (100 and 200 °C) under three moisture regimes [25, 50 and 75 % of water holding capacity (WHC)]. For both soils, significant reduction in MBC with increasing heating temperature was found. Soils without exposing to fire previously had significantly greater MBC concentration than the fire-exposed soils when heated at 100 or 200 °C. Lower soil water content resulted in higher MBC concentrations in both soils. In contrast, both soils had the highest soil microbial respiration rate at 50 % WHC. Soils without exposing to fire previously had the greatest microbial respiration rates at 200 °C, while the fire-exposed soils when heated at 100 °C had greatest microbial respiration rates. During 14-days post-heat incubation, soil MBC in both soils was greatest after heating at 200 °C and 25 % WHC. However, soil previously exposed to fire had the lowest CO₂ evolution when incubated at 25 % WHC.

The black soil region of northeast China is one of the most important grain-producing areas in China. Increasingly severe gully erosion in this region has destroyed much farmland and reduced grain production. We analyzed SPOT5 imagery from 2007 and TM imagery from 2008 to describe the distributions of gullies and farmland shelterbelts in Kedong County and to assess the effect of farmland shelterbelts on gully erosion. The imagery revealed 2311 gullies with average density of 418.51 m km⁻², indicating very serious gully erosion. With increasing slope gradient there was an inverse trend between gully density and shelterbelt density, indicating that farmland shelterbelts can prevent gully erosion. The defense effect of farmland shelterbelts against gully erosion varied with distance: for distances <120 m, the defense effect was consistent and very strong; for distances of 120–240 m, a weak linear decrease was found in the defense effect; and for distances >240 m, the defense effect of the shelterbelts was significantly weaker. We recommend an optimal planting density of farmland shelterbelts for the prevention of gully erosion at 1100–1300 m km⁻².

In order to understand the effects of increasing atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition on the subtropical bamboo ecosystem, a nearly six-year field experiment was conducted in a Pleioblastus amarus plantation in the rainy region of SW China, near the western edge of Sichuan Basin. Four N treatment levels—control (no N added), low-N (50 kg N ha⁻¹ a⁻¹), medium-N (150 kg N ha⁻¹ a⁻¹), and high-N (300 kg N ha⁻¹ a⁻¹)—were applied monthly in the P. amarus plantation starting in November 2007. In June 2012, we collected intact soil cores in the bamboo plantation and conducted a 30-day laboratory incubation experiment. The results showed that the soil N net mineralization rate was 0.96 ± 0.10 mg N kg⁻¹ day⁻¹, under control treatment. N additions stimulated the soil N net mineralization, and the high-N treatment significantly increased the soil N net mineralization rate compared with the control. Moreover, the soil N net mineralization rate was significantly and positively correlated with the fine root biomass, the soil microbial biomass nitrogen content and the soil initial inorganic N content, respectively, whereas it was negatively correlated with the soil pH value. There were no significant relationships between the soil N net mineralization rate and the soil total nitrogen (TN) content and the soil total organic carbon content and the soil C/N ratio and the soil microbial biomass carbon content, respectively. These results suggest that N additions would improve the mineral N availability in the topsoil of the P. amarus plantation through the effects of N additions on soil chemical and physical characteristics and fine-root biomass.

Eucalyptus has become an important genus in China because it displays adaptability to a wide range of site conditions and produces pulp wood and veneer on short rotations. The aim of this study was to estimate genetic parameters and relationships and consider implications for development of clonal forestry. We assessed growth traits, stem–branch characteristics, crown diameter and height of fresh branch for 20 Eucalyptus hybrid clones in China measured at the age of 44 months. Analysis of variance showed that there were significant differences in growth traits, height of fresh branch and stem straightness among clones. Significant differences in height, volume, crown diameter, height of fresh branch and branch size among replicates were also recorded. Coefficients of variation ranged from 9.84 to 28.54 % for growth traits, 12.03 to 17.25 % for stem–branch characteristics, 18.26 % for crown diameter and 11.73 % for height of fresh branch. Estimates of repeatabilities for height, diameter at breast height over bark, volume, crown diameter, height of fresh branch, stem straightness and branch size at clone mean level were 0.86, 0.80, 0.80, 0.54, 0.85, 0.77 and 0.44 respectively. Diameter at breast height over bark and height had strongly positive phenotypic and genotypic correlations with volume, ranging from 0.96 to 1.00. The positive genotypic and phenotypic correlations between growth traits and other studied traits suggested that fast growing clones always had bigger crown diameter, higher height of fresh branch, straighter stems and relatively smaller branches.

Cryptromeria fortunei is one of the main forest plantation species in the subtropical high altitude areas in China. In this paper we collected 49 C. fortunei germplasm resources and provides a study of the utility of freely available C. japonica EST resources for the development of markers necessary for genetic diversity analyses of C. fortunei. By screening 24,299 EST sequences from C. japonica with SSR Finder, we identified 2384 ESTs carrying 2783 SSR motifs. We successfully obtained 364 (15 %) primers from 2419 putative SSR loci. Of the 80 candidate SSR markers tested, 70 (87.5 %) yielded stable and clear PCR products. With those primers, the genetic diversity of 49 C. fortunei we collected was studied. The results showed that 18 primers yield polymorphism within these accessions. These 18 primers generated 48 scorable SSR loci and the average number of polymorphic SSR loci per primer was 2.7. The PIC value varied from 0.375 to 0.8101, with the average of 0.4780. The Shannon index is 0.5718, and the value of the observed number of alleles and effective number of alleles are 1.9167 and 1.7289, respectively. The genetic coefficient of these 49 accessions varied from 0.28 to 0.87. According to the genetic distances, a cluster tree was constructed. At genetic coefficient of 0.60, these 49 accessions can group into 3: group I contains only FJ-laizhou accession, and group II contains 2 accessions from FJ-layang, and the other one group contains mixed accessions. At genetic coefficient of 0.68, the former group II was constructed into 7 subgroups, with the first 3 subgroups contain 16 accessions in which 11 (69 %) are from Fujian province, and the later 4 subgroup contain 31 accessions in which 20 (65 %) were from Zhejiang province.

Myrtle, Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae), an evergreen shrub also known as wild myrtle, has a history of use as a culinary and medicinal plant. To determine the diversity within the species, plant leaves of myrtle were collected in 12 natural habitats in Iran for investigation of chemical constituents in the essential oil. Extraction of the essential oils produced yields ranging from 0.7 to 1.5 mL per 100 g dry tissue. An analysis of the oils by GC and GC/MS revealed 40 compounds, constituting 90.1–99.9 % of the essential oils. Chemical constituents varied with the site of sample origin, although the principal essential oil components from all populations, were α-pinene (17.5–37.1 %), 1,8-cineole (9.9–29.8 %), linalool (7.0–23.1 %), and α-terpineol (5.3–8.3 %). Limonene (tr, 22.7 %) was a major constituent in three populations. Characterized chemotypes included Chemotype I: α-pinene/1,8-cineole/linalool, Chemotype II: α-pinene/linalool, Chemotype III: α-pinene/1,8-cineole, and Chemotype IV: α-pinene/1,8-cineole/limonene. The main source of variability in chemical composition and oil yield appeared to be differences in environmental conditions and chemotypes as plant populations collected from close geographical areas could be classified in a cluster.

Malus hupehensis (Pamp.) Rehd. is a widely cultivated rootstock in China. We studied the effect of three NO₃ ⁻/NH₄ ⁺ ratios (100/0, 50/50, and 0/100, molar basis) at total nitrogen (N) concentration of 8 mmoL L⁻¹ in a nutrient solution on M. hupehensis seedlings. Plant biomass, NO₃ ⁻ and NH₄ ⁺concentration, chlorophyll content, respiratory rate, and cellular structure were investigated. M. hupehensis seedlings at the NO₃ ⁻/NH₄ ⁺ ratio of 50/50 had the highest level of fresh weight, dry weight, shoot length, and chlorophyll (a, b, and a + b) content, but the lowest respiration rate in the leaves and roots. In addition, thickness and numbers of palisade and spongy tissue cells of the leaves were greater with this treatment than with other treatments. At the NO₃ ⁻/NH₄ ⁺ ratio of 100/0, the leaves and roots had higher NO₃ ⁻ concentration and lower NH₄ ⁺ concentration. However, the opposite trend occurred at the NO₃ ⁻/NH₄ ⁺ ratio of 0/100. Chlorophyll (a, b, and a + b) content was lowest at the NO₃ ⁻/NH₄ ⁺ ratio of 100/0 than at the other ratios. At the NO₃ ⁻/NH₄ ⁺ ratio of 0/100, oxygen (O₂) consumption increased in the leaves and roots, and irregular epidermis and cortex cells were observed in the root apical meristematic and mature region. Our results indicated that the NO₃ ⁻/NH₄ ⁺ ratio at 50/50 was suitable for growth of M. hupehensis seedling to achieve the highest biomass production and efficiency.

Picea crassifolia Kom, a perennial arbor species is recognized as one of the most adaptable plants found to date in Qilian Mountains. To explore the cutting reproduction technology of P. crassifolia and reveal its rooting mechanism, cuttings of P. crassifolia with different cutting types (softwood, hardwood and root), positions (top, upper, middle and bottom) and ages (7, 10, 15, 20, 25 year-old) were cultivated in a field experiment. One-year old softwood and hardwood cuttings were collected from 7-, 10-, 15-, 20-, and 25 year-old healthy ortets to analyze the changes from endogenous hormones and organic nutrients. Results indicate that the softwood cuttings (0.5–1.0 cm in diameter) from upper branches of 15 year-old ortets shows better growth performance by improving rooting indexes, including a significant increase in rooting rate and a decrease in basal rot rate. Concomitantly, increasing rooting quantity and root length also increased. It is noteworthy that the high rooting rate of P. crassifolia cuttings due to its ability to accumulate high concentrations of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and total carbon (TC) rather than abscisic acid (ABA) and total nitrogen (TN). The rooting rate was mainly regulated by the IAA/ABA and TC/TN ratio. In summary, our results suggest that the softwood cuttings (0.5–1.0 cm in diameter) from upper branches of 15 year-old P. crassifolia can be considered as an effective strategy to improve cutting rooting rate, and the IAA/ABA and TC/TN ratio was one of the main factors limiting the cutting rooting rate of P. crassifolia.

Evaluation of 450 surface sterilized tissue segments of a seasonal wild legume, Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.), of coastal sand dunes and mangroves of southwest India yielded 546 isolates comprising 39 endophytic fungi with six dominant taxa (Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium tenuissimum, Fusarium moniliforme, Penicillium chrysogenum and morpho sp. 1). A consortium of saprophytic, pathogenic and toxigenic fungi exists as endophytes in S. bispinosa. Number of segments colonized, number of isolates obtained, species richness and diversity were higher in S. bispinosa in mangroves compared to coastal sand dunes. Seeds yielded more fungal isolates, but species richness and diversity were low. In spite of low fungal colonization in root segments, the diversity was high. Up to 30–40 % endophytic fungi of S. bispinosa differed between coastal sand dunes and mangroves revealing partial host- and habitat-specificity. As S. bispinosa is extensively used as green manure and forage in southwest India, further studies especially on the bioactive compounds of its endophytic fungi might broaden its range of uses. In addition to conventional morphological techniques, molecular tools would provide precise insight on the endophytic fungi of coastal sand dunes and mangroves.

Insect communities along three elevation gradients on Mt. Seongak-san, South Korea, were investigated from May to September 2013 using traps in order to collect basic data for distributional monitoring of species in a forest ecosystem. A total of 2698 individuals of 309 moth species of 18 families were collected in bucket-light traps, along with 196 individuals of 26 ground-beetle species and 11,276 individuals of 14 ant species in pit-fall traps. The insect community at each site was analyzed using analysis of variance and non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS). The ground-beetle and ant abundances varied with elevation. The NMS showed distinct clusters of moths between the ground-beetle and ant distributions with elevation and month. The community-level responses of these insect groups to those gradients were analyzed.

Cankered, dying seedlings of Juglans regia were observed in Shaanxi province in the northwest region of China. Neofusicoccum parvum was isolated from these cankered tissues, with the identification based on morphology and an ITS-nrDNA sequence. In order to demonstrate how cultures of N. parvum could cause the expected symptoms, artificial infection, using these isolates and re-isolation of the pathogen, was used. This is the first report on this taxon as a walnut canker pathogen in China.

Landscape pathology is a research approach that can provide validation of the effectiveness of regional controls of forest disease at a landscape scale. In this paper, we analyzed the effects of stand features, management approaches, and geographical locations on poplar canker disease incidence (DI) and disease severity index (DSI) of individual trees at a 10 km × 10 km mesoscale landscape in Qingfeng County, China. DI varied significantly with stand age, tree densities, and the degree of canopy closure. DI in stands younger than 4 years old was significantly lower than that in the stands over 6 years old and reached the highest value at a stand age of 8–10 years. Overall, DI was positively correlated with stand age, stand density, and the degree of canopy closure. DI was significantly lower in agro-forest stand patches than in other three patch types, i.e. isolated patch, pure stand patch, and mixed stand patch. Poplar plantations distributed around and near to villages exhibited significantly higher DI mainly due to human activities and herbivores. Fragmentation or connectivity in this mesoscale landscape seemed not impact disease occurrence. DSI was not significantly correlated with stand density, but varied significantly with tree varieties and trees ages. DSI was highest in stands of 10–12 year trees for all poplar varieties we studied here. Plantation density and plantation age were thus critical factors in determining DI and DSI. A logistic predictive model of disease occurrence was developed for the study area, considering varieties, age, height, density, canopy cover, stand types, patch types, management status, and stand geographical locations. Our study here shows that adjustment of stand density by thinning at different plantation ages is an effective approach controlling the occurrence canker disease in short-rotation poplar plantations at the landscape scale.

Bambusa pervariabilis × Dendrocalamopsis grandis blight is caused by a toxin from the fungus Arthrinium phaeospermum (corda) M. B. Ellis. We used shaking culture in a modified Fries culture medium and methanol extraction to isolate the toxin. The optimal developing solvent mixture (methanol: ethyl acetate: H₂O at 7:1.5:3) was selected using thin layer chromatography and used as the eluent for toxin purification by silica gel column chromatography. Two toxic fractions were identified in the bioassay. A flaxen oil substance, AP-I, showed higher toxicity than a toxic white powder, AP-II. The more toxic AP-I was determined to be dibutyl phthalate (C₁₆H₂₂O₄, molecular weight of 278) by mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and infrared spectrophotometry. Dibutyl phthalate might contribute to the pathogenesis of bamboo blight.

We examined wood liquefaction using phenol and mixed acid catalysts with microwave heating, and compared that with similar processes that use oil bath heating. The reaction time for microwave heating to achieve a residue content was one sixth, one eighteenth, and one twenty-fourth of that from oil bath heating, respectively, for phenol to wood (P/W) ratios of 2.5/1, 2/1 and 1.5/1. A low P/W ratio tended to result in carbonization of liquefied wood due to an insufficient amount of phenol and localized microwave superheating. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic (FTIR) evaluation of the liquefied residue, showed that the liquefaction rates of wood components differed. Hemicellulose was most susceptible to liquefaction, crystalline cellulose was most recalcitrant, and guaiacyl units the most prone to re-condensation. From FTIR, the chemical components and substitution patterns of bonded phenol were similar for both methods.

We studied the formation of heartwood in Erythrophleum fordii Oliv., an endangered rosewood species, by cross-section analysis on 52 stumps aged 28–57 years and arbitrarily sampled from natural forests in South China. Width and area of heartwood were positively correlated with age and xylem width (XW), and were independent of annual radial growth. The proportions of heartwood and sapwood areas were equal at about 40 years. The heartwood formation process was simulated by linear regression of age and XW.

Dendrocalamus farinosus and Phyllostachys heterocycla bamboo logs were subjected to a novel treatment process for the preparation of bamboo fiber mats (BFMs), and the obtained BFM were used to fabricate bamboo fiber reinforced composite (BFRC). We studied the mechanical properties of the BFRCs manufactured from the mats with and without bamboo nodes. The presence of nodes in BFM greatly reduced tensile strength, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and modulus of rupture of the BFRCs, while the BFRCs fabricated from BFMs with nodes possessed higher horizontal shear strength. Therefore, the nodes in bamboo culms were an important factor in the uniform distribution of mechanical properties, and BFMs should be homogeneously arranged to reduce the impact of nodes on the mechanical strengths of BFRCs.