Although roots are so important for plant growth and crop productivity, the molecular mechanism(s) of root formation and growth is not fully understood. To increase our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms, here we review microRNA regulation of processes related to root formation: the regulation of transcription factors, nutrient uptake, stress signaling, and growth signaling. We have summarized the interaction, expression, transport, and signaling events that involve microRNAs in ideal and stressed conditions in a number of model plants, highlighting the involvement of microRNAs in root formation. MicroRNAs are now known to be important players in root initiation, development, and growth; understanding the precise mechanisms involved will be valuable for plant molecular breeding to develop high-yielding crops with high stress resistance and low nutrient requirements.

Pinus yunnanensis Franch. is an particular conifer tree species in Yunnan–Guizhou plateau in southwest China. The morphological and anatomical traits of needles are important to evaluate geographic variation and population dynamics of conifer species. Seedlings from seven populations of P. yunnanensis were analyzed, looking at 22 morphological and anatomical needle traits. The results showed that variations among and within populations were significantly different for all traits and the variance components within populations were generally higher than that among populations in the most tested needle traits. The proportions of three-needle fascicle were significantly different among populations. The traits related to needle size in both morphology and anatomy were positive with latitude and negative with annual temperature and precipitation. Ratio indices, including mesophyll area/vascular bundle area, mesophyll area/resin canals area, vascular bundle area/resin canals area and mesophyll area/(resin canals area and vascular bundle area), were negatively correlated with elevation and positively correlated with the annual mean temperature, showing some fitness feature for the populations. Needle traits were more significantly correlated with longitude than with other four environmental factors. Needle length was significantly correlated with almost all environmental factors. First four principal components accounted for 81.596 % of the variation with eigenvalues >1; the differences among populations were mainly dependent on needle width, stomatal density, section areas of vascular bundle, total resin canals, and mesophyll, as well as area ratio traits. Seven populations were divided into three categories by Euclidean distance. Variations in needle traits among the populations have shown systematic microevolution in terms of geographic impact on P. yunnanensis. This study would provide empirical data to characterize adaptation and genetic variation of P. yunnanensis, which would be helpful for management of genetic resources and reasonable utilization of them in future.

In the megadiverse forests of Southeast Asia, hundreds of timber species are economically important but the population genetics of only a few taxa are known. Cross-specific amplification of microsatellite loci among closely related taxa could enhance our ability to study and manage previously unstudied species. We successfully utilized STMS markers in Shorea platyclados, originally developed for Shorea curtisii. The six primer pairs we tried successfully produced PCR products of expected sizes. The number of alleles observed ranged from 10 to 14 and an average of 12 alleles were detected per locus. A high expected and observed heterozygosity was observed and it ranges from 0.718 to 0.827 among all populations across all six loci tested. Microsatellite DNA markers are highly polymorphic, co-dominant, reproducible, and amenable to high throughput genetic analyses. Overall, the cross-specific amplification of microsatellite loci appears to be complicated by numerous factors. While the approach may be effective for local management and conservation of poorly known species, the results must be carefully interpreted.

Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis Sieb. et Zucc.) is an ecologically and economically important tree species in East Asia. Molecular studies of seed development of this species are limited due to the lack of effective RNA extraction protocols. This study aimed to obtain an effective method to extract high-quality RNA from Korean pine seeds. The TRIzol kit and CTAB methods were used to extract the total RNA from Korean pine seeds at different developmental stages. The bands of RNA extracted by CTAB were not clear, whereas the bands of RNA extracted by the TRIzol kit were brighter and clearer, indicating higher quality and integrity of the RNA products extracted by the TRIzol kit. The 28S rRNA band was approximately 1.5- to 2-fold brighter than the 18S rRNA band on the agarose gel electrophoresis. The absorbance value A 260/280 was 1.8–2.0, and the absorbance value A 260/230 was >1.9. The Bioanalyzer RNA integrity results showed that the RNA integrity number of the RNA extracted using the TRIzol kit was acceptable for high-throughput sequencing. Therefore, the total RNA extracted using the TRIzol kit method can be used for high-throughput sequencing and other molecular biology experiments.

Pinus yunnanensis Franch. is a major component of coniferous forests in southwestern China. Little is known about its intraspecific variation. Morphological variations in needle and cone traits of P. yunnanensis were analyzed to quantify variability among and within natural populations. Seven traits were measured on 10 needles collected from 30 trees in each of the 18 sampled populations of P. yunnanensis. Four cone traits were measured in 221 individual trees from nine populations. The results showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.01) both among populations and within populations in each needle and cone trait. The proportion of phenotypic variation of nearly all needle and cone traits was over 50 % within populations, which showed trees within populations accounted for a majority of the total variation. The needle traits showed higher variability within population than cone traits. Variability in the needle traits was correlated with geo-climatic parameters (longitude, latitude, altitude, temperature, and precipitation). Needle length and the ratio of needle length to fascicle sheath length showed clinal variation in response to latitudinal and altitudinal gradients. A hierarchical classification of all populations based on needle traits led to the formation of four major groups. The findings provide important genetic information for the evaluation of variation. Moreover, it will assist in management of genetic diversity of P. yunnanensis.

We evaluated a clone trial comprised of 20 ramets each of 40 Eucalyptus camaldulensis clones for growth and fertility at 4 years of age. The clones differed significantly in growth with 65–100 % survival in 38 clones while two clones had low survival (40 and 10 %). Fecundity was high and fertility variation low, as indicated by the sibling coefficient value (Ψ = 1.4) with 55 % of clones contributing 80 % of the fruits. Thinning strategies were considered to convert the clone trial to a clonal seed orchard and enhance both gain and diversity in seed crop. When clones were selected based on growth without considering fertility, truncation selection (to retain clones with higher DBH than the trial mean value) would give 8 % gain, but 59 % reduction in effective population size (N _e). Gain and predicted diversity (N _e) was highest when ramets were selected in linear proportion to the breeding value of each clone. Mass selection with the same intercept (for DBH) as truncation selection would give a moderate 3 % gain, but over two times higher predicted N _e than truncation selection. When fertility of retained trees was considered after thinning, mass selection would yield 52 % effective contribution from the orchard trees compared to only 30 % contribution from truncation selection and linear thinning. Higher representation of superior clones in linear thinning and mass selection would lead to greater fertility variation and over 30 % reduction in effective clone number (N _c) from that predicted (N _e, assuming equal fertility among ramets) before thinning.

The variation in shoot and root seedling growth traits was compared among three Faidherbia albida (Del). A. Chev. provenances originating from Kenya (Taveta), Malawi (Bolero) and Ghana (Bolgatanga); representing east, south and west Africa, respectively. Bulked seeds from three provenances were grown in two soil types (clay and sand) at the World Agroforestry Centre nursery, Nairobi. Seedlings grown in clay soil had high shoot growth and shoot to root ratios but shorter root length, lower number of nodules and specific root length compared to seedlings in sand soil. Shoot to root ratios reduced with time and this was more pronounced in sand soil. Overall, the Bolero and Taveta provenances had higher growth than the Bolgatanga provenance. This was probably because plants grown in nutrient-rich clay soil invest more in shoot growth as compared to root growth. Longer root growth in sand soil shows a better adaptive mechanism that increases competitive ability and survival in nutrient-poor systems. Variations observed among the seedling variables such us shoot and root growth could be used for early selection for reforestation and agroforestry in predominantly clay and sand soil areas.

An embryo classification system for Pinus tabuliformis Carr. was established by time-tracing sampling and observation of zygotic embryos. The zygotic embryos were divided into nine stages. Key elements of the zygotic embryo and female gametophyte (FG) tissue of P. tabuliformis were analyzed, using inductively coupled plasma-emission spectroscopy. Several elements—including aluminum, iron, sodium, and copper—are found in both embryo and FG tissue. Boron, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, and calcium are also required for zygotic embryo development and therefore accumulated. Manganese is selectively excluded from the embryo. The zygotic embryo development needs a low-sodium and high-potassium nutrition proportion. The results of elemental analysis from zygotic embryos and FGs can provide the mineral targets for optimizing the formulation of culture medium for somatic embryogenesis.

Soil seed banks can provide a mechanistic for understanding the recruitment dynamics and can inform conservation management of ecosystems. To investigate the contribution of soil seed banks to vegetation restoration in moving sand dune systems, we compared seed structure and species similarity between soil seed banks and standing vegetation among moving sand dunes, ecotones and dune slacks in northeast China. Average seed density in dune slacks was greater than in ecotones or moving sand dunes. Seed density in the soil layer of 0–10 cm was greater than at 10–20 cm both in the moving sand dunes and the ecotones, but seed densities were similar at depths of 10–20 and 20–30 cm in moving sand dunes. Moreover, the spatial autocorrelation of seed density on moving sand dunes was weak but was strong on the ecotones and dune slacks. The species in the soil seed bank of moving sand dune systems were nearly all annuals, and the low similarity was mainly due to the lack of perennial species that were common in standing vegetation. Consequently, vegetation restoration cannot mainly rely on the soil seed banks in the moving sand dunes and more attention should be paid to protection of the dune slacks because they are the main source of seed disperse and seedling recruitment in moving sand dune systems.

The effects of extraction fluids from the leaf litter from different dominant tree species on the functional characteristics of the soil microbial community were studied to understand how changes in soil quality and synergism between plants and soil contribute to the process of forest succession. Leaf litter from dominant tree species at different stages of succession were collected and extracted with sterile deionized water. After treating the soil of abandoned land with the different extraction fluids, we analyzed changes in carbon utilization of the soil microbial community in Biolog EcoPlates, then considered these results with those of our previous study on forest vegetation succession in the Malan forest. The leaf litter enhanced the metabolic capacity and functional diversity of the soil microbes, especially in the following combinations: the leaf litter of Quercus liaotungensis–Pinus tabulaeformis, P. tabulaeformis–Betula platyphylla, Q. liaotungensis and P. tabulaeformiss. Second, when litter from one species evaluated, the species enhanced metabolism and diversity in the order of their successional relationship: B. Platyphylla < P. tabulaeformis < Q. liaotungensis. After soils were treated with different leaf litters at 25 °C for 7 days, the sorting pattern of the PCA values, based on the similarity of carbon source utilization by the soil microbes, corresponded to the successional pattern on the basis of the similarity of community composition of forest plants. Thus, changes in soil properties caused by leaf litter from different dominant trees probably play a unique role in the successional pattern of a forest community. We thus propose a successional mechanism that underlies the natural succession process within the Malan forest region. When the dominant forest species of the climax successional stage develops during the early successional stages, its forest litter probably alters soil properties such that the soil becomes unsuitable for the gradual growth and regeneration of the original dominant tree species but promotes the growth and establishment of later-invasive plants. In this way, the originally dominant species is replaced by the newly dominant tree species during forest succession.

Use of legume trees can improve soil quality in degraded pastures. The aim of this study was to characterize C and N mineralization kinetics and estimate the potentially mineralizable C and N in soil under Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth. and Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. secondary forest and pasture in red-yellow latosols in southeast Brazil. We conducted a laboratory aerobic incubation experiment using a completely randomized design of four replicates and four types of plant cover using a modified version of the Stanford and Smith technique (1972) to study C and N mineralization potential. Potentially mineralizable N (N_o) ranged from 135 to 170 mg kg⁻¹. The predominant form of mineral N for all types of plant cover was N-NO₃ ⁻. M. caesalpiniifolia was the only species that had a positive influence on N mineralization. Neither of the legumes influenced C mineralization in pasture or secondary forest. The model of N mineralization corresponded to a sigmoidal curve while C mineralization corresponded to an exponential curve, revealing that the N and C mineralization processes were distinct. N mineralized by M. caesalpiniifolia (216 kg of N ha⁻¹) was adequate to meet the N requirement for a livestock-forest system.

Estimating individual tree volume is one of the essential building blocks in forest growth and yield models. Ecologically based taper equations provide accurate volume predictions and allow classification by merchantable sizes, assisting in sustainable forest management. In the present study, ecoregion-based compatible volume systems for brutian pine and black pine in the three ecoregions of southern Turkey were developed. Several well-known taper functions were evaluated. A second-order continuous-time autoregressive error structure was used to correct the inherent autocorrelation in the hierarchical data, allowing the model to be applied to irregularly spaced and unbalanced data. The compatible segmented model of Fang et al. (For Sci 46:1–12, 2000) best described the experimental data. It is therefore recommended for estimating diameter at a specific height, height to a specific diameter, merchantable volume, and total volume for the three ecoregions and two species analyzed. The nonlinear extra sum of squares method indicated differences in ecoregion and tree-specific taper functions. A different taper function should therefore be used for each pine species and ecoregion in southern Turkey. Using ecoregion-specific taper equations allows making more robust estimations and, therefore, will enhance the accuracy of diameter at different heights and volume predictions.

A total of 128 Simao pine trees (Pinus kesiya var. langbianensis) from three regions of Pu’er City, Yunnan Province, People’s Republic of China, were destructively sampled to obtain tree aboveground biomass (AGB). Tree variables such as diameter at breast height and total height, and topographical factors such as altitude, aspect of slope, and degree of slope were recorded. We considered the region and site quality classes as the random-effects, and the topographic variables as the fixed-effects. We fitted a total of eight models as follows: least-squares nonlinear models (BM), least-squares nonlinear models with the topographic factors (BMT), nonlinear mixed-effects models with region as single random-effects (NLME-RE), nonlinear mixed-effects models with site as single random-effects (NLME-SE), nonlinear mixed-effects models with the two-level nested region and site random-effects (TLNLME), NLME-RE with the fixed-effects of topographic factors (NLMET-RE), NLME-SE with the fixed-effects of topographic factors (NLMET-SE), and TLNLME with the fixed-effects of topographic factors (TLNLMET). The eight models were compared by model fitting and prediction statistics. The results showed: model fitting was improved by considering random-effects of region or site, or both. The models with the fixed-effects of topographic factors had better model fitting. According to AIC and BIC, the model fitting was ranked as TLNLME > NLMET-RE > NLME-RE > NLMET-SE > TLNLMET > NLME-SE > BMT > BM. The differences among these models for model prediction were small. The model prediction was ranked as TLNLME > NLME-RE > NLME-SE > NLMET-RE > NLMET-SE > TLNLMET > BMT > BM. However, all eight models had relatively high prediction precision (>90 %). Thus, the best model should be chosen based on the available data when using the model to predict individual tree AGB.

In 2013, we re-inventoried all lianas (≥1 cm diameter measured at 1.3 m from the rooting point) in four 1-ha permanent plots distributed one each in four sites of inland tropical dry evergreen forest on the Coromandel Coast (Pudukottai district) of peninsular India, established in 2003. Among the four sites, Shanmuganathapuram (SP) and Araiyapatti (AP) were much disturbed and the other two sites (Karisakkadu—KR and Maramadakki—MM) were moderately disturbed. We inventoried a total of 3425 lianas representing 37 species of 33 genera and 22 families. Over a decade (2003–2013) liana species richness increased at two sites (MM and SP) and no changes occurred at the other two sites. Liana abundance increased by 210, 211, 164 and 162 individuals at sites AP, KR, MM and SP, respectively, and basal area increased (from 1.09 to 1.76 m² at AP, 0.67 to 0.86 m² at KR, 1.68 to 2.06 m² at MM, and from 0.44 to 1.06 m² at SP). Over a 10-year period, three species (Abrus precatorius, Canavalia virosa, and Cocculus hirsutus) were lost and five species (Gloriosa superba, Ampelocissus tomentosa, Capparis sepiaria, Aganosma cymosa and Tiliacora acuminata) were newly added. Total aboveground biomass increased by 18.5, 0.74, 3.6 and 9.5 Mg ha⁻¹, respectively, at sites AP, KR, MM and SP.

We studied the impacts of liana cutting as a forest management tool on liana diversity (species richness, Shannon diversity index) and community structure (diameter distribution, basal area, species dominance) in the Asenanyo Forest Reserve, Ghana. Two types of silviculturally treated forests were studied: Logging treated (LT) and Tropical Shelterwood System (TSS) treated forests. An untreated primary forest was included as a control, resulting in three forest management systems. Lianas with diameter ≥2 cm were identified in ten 40 × 40 m² plots within each management system. Liana cutting significantly reduced liana species richness, Shannon diversity index, and basal area in the LT forest after two decades. However, liana species richness and basal area were comparable in the TSS treated and untreated forests, indicating significant recovery in the former after over six decades. Sørensen similarity index of liana species composition between the untreated forest and each of the treated forests was moderate. Our findings suggest that liana cutting most likely influenced the dominance of some liana species. In view of the adverse impact of blanket liana cutting on liana diversity, selective liana cutting is recommended as a means of controlling liana numbers while maintaining liana diversity.

Mikania cordata, an invasive weed is becoming a problem in the secondary degraded forests and plantations of Bangladesh, not only competing with but also releasing allelochemicals to cultivated crops. Allelopathic effects of the leaves of M. cordata were investigated through an experiment in the green house of the Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Five economically important agricultural crops (Oryza sativa L., Triticum aestivum L., Vigna sinensis L., Abelmoschus esculentus L. and Amaranthus tricolor L.) and three forest crops (Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. & Hook, Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth., and Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielson) were used as bioassay species. Experiments were conducted on trays at an average room temperature 27 °C. The effects of different concentrations of leaf extracts were compared to controls. Water soluble allelochemicals of M. c ordata inhibited the germination and initial growth of the tested agricultural and forest crops. Germination percent of forest crops declined with increasing concentration of extracts. The inhibitory effect on root elongation of forest crops was pronounced, whereas a stimulatory effect was found on P. falcataria up to a concentration of 25 %. Abelmoschus esculentus showed poor germination (%) and low shoot development (0.5 cm) and no development of taproot or lateral roots at treatment of 100 % concentration. The inhibitory effect was proportional to the concentrations of the extracts with higher concentrations producing stronger inhibitory effects. Lower concentrations showed some stimulatory effect. The inhibitory effect was pronounced in root and lateral root development rather than germination or shoot development of the crops. Mikania cordata should be eradicated for healthy growth and development of the forest and adjacent agricultural crops.

We developed a method for in vitro regeneration of Garcinia xanthochymus (yellow mangosteen) from matured seed segments. Multiple shoots were induced on woody plant (WP) medium supplemented with cytokinins. An average of 11 shoots per explant were regenerated from mature seed segments on WP medium containing 20 µM 6-benzylaminopurine. Histological analysis revealed that hypodermal cells of seed segments were initially involved in active division, which later developed into meristemoids, subsequently leading to the formation of shoot buds. Shoot elongation was achieved by repeated subculturing of seed explants in shoot regeneration medium. Rooting of shoots was achieved on WP medium supplemented with indole-3-butyric acid or α-naphthalene acetic acid. Plantlets were transplanted to pots containing soil: compost (1:1) and survival rate was 90 %.

We evaluated the hypoglycemic and antioxidant effects of the total alkaloids of leaves and twigs of Catharanthus roseus Linn. (CTA) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. The hypoglycemic effect was measured by blood glucose and plasma insulin level. Oxidative stress was measured in heart, liver and kidney by levels of antioxidant markers, free radical scavengers and lipid peroxides i.e. superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). Biochemical parameters, i.e. aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphate (ALP) were observed in diabetic control and treated rats. Oral administration of CTA for 30 days was followed by a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in fasting blood glucose and increase in insulin level as compared with untreated diabetic rats. Also it significantly (P < 0.05) reduced ALT, AST and ALP. The treatment also resulted in significant (P < 0.05) reductions in GSH, SOD, CAT, and decrease in TBARS in the heart, liver and kidney of diabetic rats. The results suggest that CTA can effectively normalize the impaired antioxidant status in STZ-induced diabetes in a dose-dependent manner. CTA exerted rapid protective effects against lipid peroxidation by scavenging of free radicals and reducing the risk of diabetic complications.

The present study analyzes the structure and dynamics of the forest landscape in a peri-urban area (Rome, Italy) during the city’s expansion from 1949 to 2008 using landscape metrics and change detection analysis of digital maps of the area (1500 km²). While urban settlements increased continuously from 6.5 to 27.5 % of the study area, woodlands changed less clearly, with a moderate increase (from 11.2 to 11.9 % of the total area) and a higher fragmentation as a consequence of Rome’s expansion. The structure of forest landscape changed along the urban-to-rural gradient with patch size increasing with the distance to the inner city in 1949 and substantial landscape homogeneity in 2008. The indicators proposed in this study inform dedicated measures for conserving forest and maintaining landscape diversity. Measures adopted in Rome’s forestation plan to counteract woodland fragmentation were analyzed and discussed. Based on the complex landscape dynamics found for Rome, an integrated multiscale planning approach targeting forest conservation is considered a key contribution to urban sustainability.

Evaluation of various fungicides against needle blight disease of pine was carried out at Sheri Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology of Kashmir (India) during the year 2008 and 2009. Application of various fungicides were evaluated in vivo at different concentrations. However in both, mist-chamber and poly-chamber, the Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana Jackson) seedlings treated with hexaconazole 5EC (@ 0.03 %) or carbendazim 50WP (@ 0.1 %) depicted significantly less disease incidence and intensity. The seedlings treated with mancozeb 75WP (@ 0.3 %) and chlorothalonil 75WP (@ 0.3 %) exhibited less disease incidence and intensity. Increase in relative humidity from 60 to 100 % significantly enhanced needle blight disease incidence and intensity. In field trial the fungitoxicants used either as single spray or protectant followed by systemic fungitoxicant spray significantly reduced disease incidence in Blue pine compared to check. The mean disease incidence in fungitoxicant treated plants varied from 11.82 to 25.51 % as compared to 36.03 % in control.

Korean spruce (Picea koraiensis Sieb. El Zucc.) is one of the main afforestation species in northern China. Seedling quality is a critical factor at planting time. To test whether the synergistic growth enhancement of Scotch pine (P. sylvestris var. mongolica) seedlings brought by the plant beneficial fungus Trichoderma virens (J.H. Mill., Giddens and A.A. Foster) Arx and ectomycorrhizal fungus (Suillus luteus (L.) Roussel.) can also benefit Korean spruce seedlings, we examined the effects of S. luteus and T. virens on the growth of P. koraiensis seedlings and drought resistance of P. sylvestris var. mongolica in peat soils. The two fungi were added to sterilized peat soil in pots, and the plants were grown for 4 months. Seedling growth and physiological variables, including mycorrhizal colonization rate of roots, biomass, and chlorophyll content, were examined. The colonization rate of the mycorrhizal fungus on P. koraiensis exceeded 65 %, and the synergism between S. luteus and T. virens enhanced most of the variables for P. koraiensis seedlings after inoculation with S. luteus then 30 days later with T. virens as in our published results for seedlings of P. sylvestris var. mongolica. When seedlings of P. sylvestris var. mongolica were inoculated with this sequence, they became more drought tolerant. T. virens also induced S. luteus to produce -1,3-glucanase and chitinase. This inoculation sequence at planting can thus improve the quality of P. sylvestris var. mongolica and P. koraiensis seedlings and substantiates our previous results.

Platystethynium glabrum Jin et Li sp. nov. is described from China, and the genus is new to Chinese insect fauna. Diagnostic characters for the new species are given in comparison with the apparently closely related P. onomarchicidum. Two other mymarid species are also newly recognized from China: Mymar africanum Annecke and Anagroidea marina Triapitsyn et Berezovskiy.

We studied the effect of wollastonite nanofibers on fluid flow in medium-density fiberboard (MDF). Nanowollastonite (NW) was applied in MDF at 10 %, based on the dry weight of wood fibers. We also tested chicken feathers as an additive to the matrix at 5 and 10 % by weight. The weight of feathers was reduced from the wood fibers to keep the density of the panels constant (0.66 g cm⁻³). Wollastonite nanofibers acted as filler in the matrix and significantly decreased gas and liquid permeability. Higher thermal conductivity of the NW-treated MDF-mats resulted in a better cure of resin, and consequently more integrity in the composite-matrix and lower permeability. The water-repellant property of wollastonite also contributed to the decrease in liquid permeability. Feathers reduced gas and liquid permeability due to the hydrophobic nature of keratin, as well as its formation as a physical barrier towards passing of fluids. Ten percent feather content proved too high and some checks and cracks occurred in the core of the panels after hot-pressing. Panels with 5 %-feather content resulted in both lower fluid flow and adequate physical integrity in the core section of the MDF-matrix.

We developed a novel wood recognition scheme based on wood surface spectral features that aimed to solve three problems. First was elimination of noise in some bands of wood spectral reflection curves. Second was improvement of wood feature selection based on analysis of wood spectral data. The wood spectral band is 350–2500 nm, a 2150D vector with a spectral sampling interval of 1 nm. We developed a feature selection procedure and a filtering procedure by solving the eigenvalues of the dispersion matrix. Third, we optimized the design for the indoor radian’s mounting height. We used a genetic algorithm to solve the optimal radian’s height so that the spectral reflection curves had the best classification information for wood species. Experiments on fivecommon wood species in northeast China showed overall recognition accuracy >95 % at optimal recognition velocity.

Wood heat treatment has increased significantly in recent years and is still growing as an industrial process to improve some wood properties. We studied the change of swellingand surface roughness of common alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. ssp.glutinosa) and wych elm (Ulmus glabra Huds.) woods after heat treatment at two different temperatures and durations. The temperatures were 180 and 200 °C and the durations were 2 and 4 h. A stylus method was employed to evaluate the surface characteristics of the samples. Roughness measurements by the stylus method were made in the direction perpendicular to the fiber on the wood surface. Four main roughness parameters, mean arithmetic deviation of profile (R _a), mean peak-to-valley height (R _z), root mean square roughness (R _q), and maximum roughness (R _y) were used to evaluate the effect of heat treatment on the surface characteristics of the specimens. Swelling and surface roughness parameters (R _a, R _z, R _y, and R _q) differed significantly for two temperatures and two durations of heat treatment. Swelling and surface roughness values decreased with increasing treatment temperature and treatment times.