The abundance, characteristics and diversity of microplastics in the South China Sea: Observation around three remote islands

Abstract

• A high abundance of floating MPs was found in the southern South China Sea.

• Transparent film and fiber were predominant in water and organisms, respectively.

• 84.7% of floating MPs and 54.5% of MPs in vivo belonged to PP and PE.

• Characteristics of MP in organisms were different from those of inshore ones.

Surrounded by emerging markets with considerable plastic consumption, the South China Sea has been a focus area of microplastic research. A survey on the floating microplastics (>0.3 mm) and microplastics ingested by fish and mollusks was conducted around three remote islands here. Compared with the results from several previous studies, a high abundance of floating microplastics (with a median of 1.9 × 10⁵ items/km² or 0.7 items/m³) was observed, revealing another “hot spot” for microplastics. Polyolefin, especially polypropylene, was the main component. The diversity index and evenness index were calculated and evaluated based on the composition of microplastics. The characteristic peaks of Raman spectra concerning pigmented microplastics were provided. Transparent sheets/films were predominant in the water sample, which was quite different from a similar study in this sea area (8.9% for film), and only 16.4% of floating microplastics (>0.3 mm) were fibers/lines, implying that the main sources of floating microplastics (>0.3 mm) might be household/agricultural consumption activities. The transparent fiber/line was also dominant in organisms. It is suggested that the main sources of microplastics ingested by organisms might be both fabric fibers and fishing/aquaculture.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Microplastics / Coral reefs / Abundance / Diversity / Characteristics

References

[1] Berry K L E, Epstein H E, Lewis P J, Hall N M, Negri A P (2019). Microplastic contamination has limited effects on coral fertilisation and larvae. Diversity, 11(12): 228

[2] Borrelle S B, Ringma J, Law K L, Monnahan C C, Lebreton L, McGivern A, Murphy E, Jambeck J, Leonard G H, Hilleary M A, Eriksen M, Possingham H P, De Frond H, Gerber L R, Polidoro B, Tahir A, Bernard M, Mallos N, Barnes M, Rochman C M (2020). Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic pollution. Science, 369(6510): 1515–1518

[3] Browne M A, Crump P, Niven S J, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R (2011). Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: Sources and sinks. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(21): 9175–9179

[4] Burgio L, Clark R J H (2001). Library of FT-Raman spectra of pigments, minerals, pigment media and varnishes, and supplement to existing library of Raman spectra of pigments with visible excitation. Spectrochimica Acta. Part A, Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 57(7): 1491–1521

[5] Cabernard L, Roscher L, Lorenz C, Gerdts G, Primpke S (2018). Comparison of Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for the quantification of microplastics in the aquatic environment. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(22): 13279–13288

[6] Caggiani M C, Cosentino A, Mangone A (2016). Pigments Checker version 3.0, a handy set for conservation scientists: A free online Raman spectra database. Microchemical Journal, 129: 123–132

[7] Cai M, He H, Liu M, Li S, Tang G, Wang W, Huang P, Wei G, Lin Y, Chen B, Hu J, Cen Z (2018). Lost but can’t be neglected: Huge quantities of small microplastics hide in the South China Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 633: 1206–1216

[8] Chen H, Wang S, Guo H, Lin H, Zhang Y, Long Z, Huang H (2019). Study of marine debris around a tourist city in East China: Implication for waste management. Science of the Total Environment, 676: 278–289

[9] Chen J C, Fang C, Zheng R H, Hong F K, Jiang Y L, Zhang M, Li Y, Hamid F S, Bo J, Lin L S (2021). Microplastic pollution in wild commercial nekton from the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, and its implication to human health. Marine Environmental Research, 167: 105295

[10] Codina-García M, Militão T, Moreno J, González-Solís J (2013). Plastic debris in Mediterranean seabirds. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 77(1-2): 220–226

[11] Collard F, Gilbert B, Eppe G, Parmentier E, Das K (2015). Detection of anthropogenic particles in fish stomachs: An isolation method adapted to identification by Raman Spectroscopy. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 69(3): 331–339

[12] Critchell K, Hoogenboom M O (2018). Effects of microplastic exposure on the body condition and behaviour of planktivorous reef fish (Acanthochromis polyacanthus). PLoS One, 13(3): e0193308

[13] de Carvalho-Souza G F, Llope M, Tinôco M S, Medeiros D V, Maia-Nogueira R, Sampaio C L S (2018). Marine litter disrupts ecological processes in reef systems. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 133: 464–471

[14] Dell’Ariccia G, Phillips R A, van Franeker J A, Gaidet N, Catry P, Granadeiro J P, Ryan P G, Bonadonna F (2017). Comment on “Marine plastic debris emits a keystone infochemical for olfactory foraging seabirds” by Savoca et al. Science Advances, 3(6): e1700526

[15] Denekamp I M, Veenstra F L P, Jungbacker P, Rothenberg G (2019). A simple synthesis of symmetric phthalocyanines and their respective perfluoro and transition- metal complexes. Applied Organometallic Chemistry, 33(5): e4872

[16] Ding J, Jiang F, Li J, Wang Z, Sun C, Wang Z, Fu L, Ding N X, He C (2019). Microplastics in the coral reef systems from Xisha Islands of South China Sea. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(14): 8036–8046

[17] Dowarah K, Devipriya S P (2019). Microplastic prevalence in the beaches of Puducherry, India and its correlation with fishing and tourism/recreational activities. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 148: 123–133

[18] Dris R, Gasperi J, Rocher V, Tassin B (2018). Synthetic and non-synthetic anthropogenic fibers in a river under the impact of Paris Megacity: Sampling methodological aspects and flux estimations. Science of the Total Environment, 618: 157–164

[19] Enfrin M, Dumée L F, Lee J (2019). Nano/microplastics in water and wastewater treatment processes- Origin, impact and potential solutions. Water Research, 161: 621–638

[20] Eriksen M, Lebreton L C M, Carson H S, Thiel M, Moore C J, Borerro J C, Galgani F, Ryan P G, Reisser J (2014). Plastic pollution in the world’s oceans: More than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS One, 9(12): e111913

[21] Estahbanati S, Fahrenfeld N L (2016). Influence of wastewater treatment plant discharges on microplastic concentrations in surface water. Chemosphere, 162: 277–284

[22] Fang C, Zheng R, Chen H, Hong F, Lin L, Lin H, Guo H, Bailey C, Segner H, Mu J, Bo J (2019). Comparison of microplastic contamination in fish and bivalves from two major cities in Fujian province, China and the implications for human health. Aquaculture (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 512: 734322

[23] Fang C, Zheng R, Zhang Y, Hong F, Mu J, Chen M, Song P, Lin L, Lin H, Le F, Bo J (2018). Microplastic contamination in benthic organisms from the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. Chemosphere, 209: 298–306

[24] GESAMP (2019). Guidelines or the monitoring and assessment of plastic litter and microplastics in the ocean. Kershaw P J, Turra A and Galgani F eds. GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP/ISA Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection) Report and Studies No. 99, 130p

[25] Goldstein M C, Titmus A J, Ford M (2013). Scales of spatial heterogeneity of plastic marine debris in the northeast Pacific Ocean. PLoS One, 8(11), e80020 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080020 PMID:24278233

[26] Harris P T, Tamelander J, Lyons Y, Neo M L, Maes T (2021). Taking a mass-balance approach to assess marine plastics in the South China Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 171: 112708

[27] Hidayaturrahman H, Lee T G (2019). A study on characteristics of microplastic in wastewater of South Korea: Identification, quantification, and fate of microplastics during treatment process. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 146: 696–702

[28] Huang Y, Yan M, Xu K, Nie H, Gong H, Wang J (2019). Distribution characteristics of microplastics in Zhubi Reef from South China Sea. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 255(Pt 1): 113133

[29] Imhof H K, Laforsch C, Wiesheu A C, Schmid J, Anger P M, Niessner R, Ivleva N P (2016). Pigments and plastic in limnetic ecosystems: A qualitative and quantitative study on microparticles of different size classes. Water Research, 98: 64–74

[30] Jambeck J R, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler T R, Perryman M, Andrady A, Narayan R, Law K L (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(6223): 768–771

[31] Jensen L H, Motti C A, Garm A L, Tonin H, Kroon F J (2019). Sources, distribution and fate of microfibres on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Scientific Reports, 9(1): 9021

[32] Karami A, Golieskardi A, Keong Choo C, Larat V, Galloway T S, Salamatinia B (2017). The presence of microplastics in commercial salts from different countries. Scientific Reports, 7(1): 46173

[33] Lanctôt C M, Bednarz V N, Melvin S, Jacob H, Oberhaensli F, Swarzenski P W, Ferrier-Pagès C, Carroll A R, Metian M (2020). Physiological stress response of the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata exposed to polyethylene microplastics. Environmental Pollution, 263 (Part A): 114559

[34] Lebreton L C M, Borrero J C (2013). Modeling the transport and accumulation floating debris generated by the 11 March 2011 Tohoku tsunami. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 66(1–2): 53–58

[35] Lebreton L C M, van der Zwet J, Damsteeg J W, Slat B, Andrady A, Reisser J (2017). River plastic emissions to the world’s oceans. Nature Communications, 8(1): 15611

[36] Lestari P, Trihadiningrum Y (2019). The impact of improper solid waste management to plastic pollution in Indonesian coast and marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 149: 110505

[37] Liu J Y (2013a). Status of marine biodiversity of the China seas. PLoS One, 8(1): e50719

[38] Liu R (2013b). Marine Organism (in Chinese). In: Wang Y eds. China’s Marine Geography. Beijing: Science Press,245–409

[39] Ma C, You K, Zhang M, Li F, Chen D (2008). A preliminary study on the diversity of fish species and marine fish faunas of the South China Sea. Journal of Ocean University of China, 7(2): 210–214

[40] Marshell J (2010). FT Raman spectrum and band assignments for metal–free phthalocyanine (H₂Pc). Material Science Research India, 7(1): 221–224

[41] Masura J, Baker J, Foster G, Arthur C (2015). Laboratory methods for the analysis of microplastics in the marine environment: Recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48. Available online ataccessed December 18, 2019)

[42] Michida Y, Chavanich S, Cabañas A C, Hagmann P, Hinata H, Isobe A, Kershaw P, Kozlovskii N, Li D, Lusher A L, Martí E, Mason S A, Mu J, Saito H, Shim W J, Syakti A D, Takada H, Thompson R, Tokai T, Uchida K, Vasilenko K, Wang J (2019). Guidelines for harmonizing ocean surface microplastic monitoring methods. Ministry of the Environment Japan, 71 pp. Available online at website of www.env.go.jp (accessed December 18, 2019)

[43] Min K, Cuiffi J D, Mathers R T (2020). Ranking environmental degradation trends of plastic marine debris based on physical properties and molecular structure. Nature Communications, 11(1): 727

[44] Montano S, Seveso D, Maggioni D, Galli P, Corsarini S, Saliu F (2020). Spatial variability of phthalates contamination in the reef-building corals Porites lutea, Pocillopora verrucosa and Pavona varians. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 155: 111117

[45] Moore C, Phillip C (2011). Plastic Ocean: How a Sea Captain’s Chance Discovery Launched a Determined Quest to Save the Oceans. 1st ed. New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc.

[46] Munari C, Corbau C, Simeoni U, Mistri M (2016). Marine litter on Mediterranean shores: Analysis of composition, spatial distribution and sources in north-western Adriatic beaches. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 49: 483–490

[47] Nie H, Wang J, Xu K, Huang Y, Yan M (2019). Microplastic pollution in water and fish samples around Nanxun Reef in Nansha Islands, South China Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 696: 134022

[48] de Orte M R, Clowez S, Caldeira K (2019). Response of bleached and symbiotic sea anemones to plastic microfiber exposure. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 249: 512–517

[49] Pan Z, Guo H, Chen H, Wang S, Sun X, Zou Q, Zhang Y, Lin H, Cai S, Huang J (2019). Microplastics in the Northwestern Pacific: Abundance, distribution, and characteristics. Science of the Total Environment, 650(Pt 2): 1913–1922

[50] Peng X, Chen M, Chen S, Dasgupta S, Xu H, Ta K, Du M, Li J, Guo Z, Bai S (2018). Microplastics contaminate the deepest part of the world’s ocean. Geochemical Perspectives Letters, 9: 1–5

[51] Reichert J, Arnold A L, Hoogenboom M O, Schubert P, Wilke T (2019). Impacts of microplastics on growth and health of hermatypic corals are species-specific. Environmental Pollution, 254 (B): 113074

[52] Reichert J, Schellenberg J, Schubert P, Wilke T (2018). Responses of reef building corals to microplastic exposure. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 237: 955–960

[53] Reisser J, Slat B, Noble K, du Plessis K, Epp M, Proietti M, de Sonneville J, Becker T, Pattiaratchi C (2015). The vertical distribution of buoyant plastics at sea: An observational study in the North Atlantic Gyre. Biogeosciences, 12(4): 1249–1256

[54] Saliu F, Montano S, Leoni B, Lasagni M, Galli P (2019). Microplastics as a threat to coral reef environments: Detection of phthalate esters in neuston and scleractinian corals from the Faafu Atoll, Maldives. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 142: 234–241

[55] Savoca M S, Wohlfeil M E, Ebeler S E, Nevitt G A (2016). Marine plastic debris emits a keystone infochemical for olfactory foraging seabirds. Science Advances, 2(11): e1600395

[56] Shaw E J, Turner A (2019). Recycled electronic plastic and marine litter. Science of the Total Environment, 694: 133644

[57] Shim W J, Hong S H, Eo S (2017). Identification methods in microplastic analysis: A review. Analytical Methods, 9(9): 1384–1391

[58] Sparks C, Immelman S (2020). Microplastics in offshore fish from the Agulhas Bank, South Africa. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 156: 111216

[59] Suaria G, Perold V, Lee J R, Lebouard F, Aliani S, Ryan P G (2020). Floating macro- and microplastics around the Southern Ocean: Results from the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition. Environment International, 136: 105494

[60] Taha Z D, Md Amin R, Anuar S T, Nasser A A, Sohaimi E S (2021). Microplastics in seawater and zooplankton: A case study from Terengganu estuary and offshore waters, Malaysia. Science of the Total Environment, 786: 147466

[61] Tamminga M, Stoewer S-C, Fischer E K (2019). On the representativeness of pump water samples versus manta sampling in microplastic analysis. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 254(Pt A): 112970 doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.112970 PMID:31377328

[62] Tan F, Yang H, Xu X, Fang Z, Xu H, Shi Q, Zhang X, Wang G, Lin L, Zhou S, Huang L, Li H (2020). Microplastic pollution around remote uninhabited coral reefs of Nansha Islands, South China Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 725: 138383

[63] Tan W, Cui D, Xi B (2021). Moving policy and regulation forward for single-use plastic alternatives. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 15(3): 50

[64] Tang G, Liu M, Zhou Q, He H, Chen K, Zhang H, Hu J, Huang Q, Luo Y, Ke H, Chen B, Xu X, Cai M (2018a). Microplastics and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Xiamen coastal areas: Implications for anthropogenic impacts. Science of the Total Environment, 634: 811–820

[65] Tang J, Ni X Z, Zhou Z, Wang L G, Lin S J (2018b). Acute microplastic exposure raises stress response and suppresses detoxification and immune capacities in the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 243(Pt A): 66–74 doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2018.08.045 PMID:30172125

[66] Tang J, Wu Z, Wan L, Cai W, Chen S, Wang X, Luo J, Zhou Z, Zhao J, Lin S (2021). Differential enrichment and physiological impacts of ingested microplastics in scleractinian corals in situ. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 404(Pt B): 124205

[67] van Sebille E, Aliani S, Law K L, Maximenko N, Alsina J M, Bagaev A, Bergmann M, Chapron B, Chubarenko I, Cózar A, Delandmeter P, Egger M, Fox-Kemper B, Garaba S P, Goddijn-Murphy L, Hardesty B D, Hoffman M J, Isobe A, Jongedijk C E, Kaandorp M L A, Khatmullina L, Koelmans A A, Kukulka T, Laufkötter C, Lebreton L, Lobelle D, Maes C, Martinez-Vicente V, Maqueda M A M, Poulain-Zarcos M, Rodríguez E, Ryan P G, Shanks A L, Shim W J, Suaria G, Thiel M, van den Bremer T S, Wichmann D (2020). The physical oceanography of the transport of floating marine debris. Environmental Research Letters, 15(2): 023003

[68] van Sebille E, Wilcox C, Lebreton L, Maximenko N, Hardesty B D, van Franeker J A, Eriksen M, Siegel D, Galgani F, Law K L (2015). A global inventory of small floating plastic debris. Environmental Research Letters, 10(12): 124006

[69] Wang S, Chen H, Zhou X, Tian Y, Lin C, Wang W, Zhou K, Zhang Y, Lin H (2020). Microplastic abundance, distribution and composition in the mid-west Pacific Ocean. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 264: 114125

[70] Wang T, Zou X, Li B, Yao Y, Zang Z, Li Y, Yu W, Wang W (2019). Preliminary study of the source apportionment and diversity of microplastics: Taking floating microplastics in the South China Sea as an example. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 245: 965–974

[71] WTO (2020). World trade statistical review 2020 Chapter IV Shifting patterns in trade. Available online at the website of accessed March 2, 2021)

[72] Wu P, Huang J, Zheng Y, Yang Y, Zhang Y, He F, Chen H, Quan G, Yan J, Li T, Gao B (2019). Environmental occurrences, fate, and impacts of microplastics. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 184: 109612

[73] Xu E G, Ren Z J (2021). Preventing masks from becoming the next plastic problem. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 15(6): 125 doi:10.1007/s11783-021-1413-7

[74] Zhao S, Danley M, Ward J E, Li D, Mincer T C (2017). An approach for extraction, characterization and quantitation of microplastic in natural marine snow using Raman microscopy. Analytical Methods, 9(9): 1470–1478

[75] Zhu C, Li D, Sun Y, Zheng X, Peng X, Zheng K, Hu B, Luo X, Mai B (2019a). Plastic debris in marine birds from an island located in the South China Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 149: 110566

[76] Zhu J, Zhang Q, Li Y, Tan S, Kang Z, Yu X, Lan W, Cai L, Wang J, Shi H (2019b). Microplastic pollution in the Maowei Sea, a typical mariculture bay of China. Science of the Total Environment, 658: 62–68

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press