Saline-alkali soil reclamation and utilization in China: progress and prospects

Highlights

● Saline-alkali land is an important underutilized resource in China that could complement arable land and maintain the food security.

● China has made great progress in saline-alkali soil reclamation and utilization, and developed customized technologies for these soils.

● In the future, comprehensive management strategies should be implemented by integrating traditional saline-alkali soil management practices and new technologies to increase crop tolerance.

Abstract

Soil salinity is a global threat to the productivity of arable land. With the impact of population growth and development of social economy in China, the area of arable land has been shrinking in recent decades and is approaching a critical threshold of 120 Mha, the minimum area for maintaining the national food security. Saline-alkaline land, as important backup reserve, has been receiving increased attention as an opportunity to expand land resources. This review first summarizes the general principles and technologies of saline soil reclamation to support plant growth, including leaching salts or blocking the rise of salts, and soil fertility enhancement to improve the buffering capacity. Then the progress in this area in China is described including the customization of technologies and practices used in different saline-alkali regions. Following the soil management strategies, the concept of selecting crops for saline soil is proposed. This encompasses halophyte planting, salt-tolerant crop breeding and the application of saline-adapted functional microorganisms to improve the adaptation of crops. Finally, the current problems and challenges are evaluate, and future research directions and prospects proposed for managing this major soil constraint.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Food security / land reserve / reclamation / saline-alkali soil / utilization

Introduction

The first trace of what is today known as the Appaloosa horse goes back to prehistoric times. These horses were introduced to America during the Spanish colonization; years later, the Nez Perce people of Idaho developed a special interest in Appaloosa horses. Pleased with their characteristics such as distinctive spotted coats, versatility and robustness, the Nez Perce only bred the ones they considered to be the best for hunting, racing and war.

The present study arose from the interest of an Appaloosa stud farm owner to evaluate the level of consanguinity of his horses kept on an ecological reserve near Buenos Aires, Argentina. The reserve had about a hundred horses, originating from the crossbreeding of a few individuals acquired as pure breed Appaloosa. Since genetic characterization of breeds is a compelling prerequisite for preservation and management strategies [1,2], this study was conducted to quantify genetic variation within a closed breeding population of Appalossa horses and to compare this with a selection of breeds, including Appaloosa, from different origins.<FootNote>

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Materials and methods

Genomic DNA was isolated from blood samples from 72 Appaloosa horses. Eight microsatellites (short tandem repeat loci, AHT4, AHT5, ASB2, HMS3, HMS6, HTG4, HTG10 and VHL20) as recommended by the International Society for Animal Genetics [3] were amplified by PCR in an MAXYGENE instrument (Axygene Inc., Union City, CA). Genotypes were determined on a MegaBase 1000 automated sequencer (GE Healthcare, Buckinghamshire, UK) using ET550-Rox as molecular size standard (GE Healthcare) and assessed by using Fragment Profiler Software Suit version 2.2 (MegaBase Build 1.2.0311.2500, Amersham Biosciences, GE Healthcare, Buckingamshire, UK, 2003).

Population genetic parameters for the Appaloosa horses from Argentina were estimated by GENEPOP [4]. For Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, P-values less than 0.05 were considered significant. To assess the distribution of the genetic variability within and among breeds, a comparative analysis was performed by using microsatellite diversity from the following eight breeds [5]: Appaloosa, Arabian, Thoroughbred, Andalusian, Haflinger, Dutch, Lusitano and Standardbred.

Results

The genetic variability detected in this study (Table 1) was very similar to that found in Appaloosa by Van der Goor [5]. Overall, the nine populations showed high levels of heterozygosity, ranging from 0.674 for Dutch to 0.771 for Lusitano. Appaloosa from Argentina showed a higher F_IS value (0.067), indicating a deficit of heterozygotes, likely reflecting the lack of reproductive management of the stud farm. The number of markers not in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium ranged from 0 in Standardbred and Dutch, to 4 (AHT5, ASB2, HTG10 and VHL20) in Appaloosa from Argentina.

Tab.1 The genetic variability of 9 horse populations

			Heterozygosity
Population	ID	N	Expected	Observed	Na	FIS	HWE*	Reference
Appaloosa (ARG)	AP	72	0.746	0.697	7.63	0.066	4	This study
Appaloosa	APP	99	0.765	0.761	7.63	0.005	2	[5]
Arabian	ARA	100	0.676	0.666	6.50	0.015	1	[5]
Thoroughbred	THO	54	0.713	0.698	5.25	0.021	1	[5]
Andalusian	AND	67	0.721	0.711	6.88	0.015	4	[5]
Haflinger	HAF	65	0.711	0.690	5.50	0.015	1	[5]
Dutch	DUT	73	0.674	0.724	6.00	-0.023	0	[5]
Lusitano	LUS	43	0.771	0.788	6.63	0.029	1	[5]
Sandardbred	STA	100	0.749	0.738	6.63	-0.075	0	[5]

Note: N: number of individuals per population; Na: number of alleles; FIS: within-population inbreeding coefficient; HWE: number of loci with Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium; *: P<0.05.

Based on the genotypes of the eight short tandem repeats loci, individuals were clustered into a given number of populations and assigned probabilistically to two to eight possible clusters (K) inferred with the Bayesian approach of STRUCTURE 2.3.4 [6]. The proportional membership of individual genotypes in different clusters (Fig. 1) indicates that, for K= 2, one cluster included Arabian, Thoroughbred, Standardbred, Andalusian and Lusitano; another one the Haflinger and Dutch horses; while both Appaloosa populations showed some level of admixture with a particular inverted pattern (Fig. 1). For K= 4, Appaloosa horse from Argentina and American Standardbred were assigned to the same genetic cluster, Arabian and Thoroughbred fell into a second cluster; whereas the Appaloosa population conformed to a third cluster with Andausian and Lusitano horses. Finally, the fourth cluster was composed Haflinger and Dutch horses (Fig. 1). The relationship between Thoroughbred and Arabian [7] as well as the link between Andalusian and Lusitano has been reported previously [7,8].

Fig.1 Model-based clustering of 9 horse populations using STRUCTURE software. The 8 STR loci genotypes were analyzed using an admixture model with a burnin length of 100000 followed by 1000000 Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) replicates. Each animal is represented by a single vertical line divided into K colors, where K is the number of clusters assumed and the colors show the estimated individual proportions of cluster membership. Results are shown for (a) K = 2 and (b) K = 4. AP: Appaloosa Argentina; APP: Appaloosa; ARA: Arab; THO: Thoroughbred; STA: Standardbred; AND: Andalusian; LUS: Lusitan; HAF: Haflinger; DUT: Dutch Horse; *: Source [5].

Full size|PPT slide

Discussion

Increased homozygosity as a consequence of inbreeding in a closed population could represent a disadvantage for the whole population if it concentrates no beneficial and recessively transmitted characters. The breeding practices exercised by the horse owner, may further weaken the diversity levels through the breeding between relatives, increasing the probability of recessive diseases occurrence.

Some methods have recently been developed to evaluate the genetic contribution of populations to within-breed and between-breed diversities [9,10]. In the last decades, microsatellite markers have been used to evaluate genetic distances and to characterize local breeds [11,12].

It has been suggested [13,14] that the population sizes of various horse breeds declined appreciably in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Although a reduction in variability might have been expected in the Appaloosa from Argentina, no such significant effect was detected in our study (Table 1). As discussed in [15] bottlenecked populations might not show distorted allelic distribution for several reasons such as size of the sample or polymorphism level of the loci studied, the representativeness of sampled individuals, the possible occurrence of a demographic but not genetic bottleneck, and the presence of immigrants genes in a partially isolated population [14].

Conclusions

The biologic unit for conservation in domesticated animals is usually the breed. Obtaining information from molecular markers made it possible to create a hypothetical scenario for assessing different methods of analyzing diversity for conservation [14]. The present study contributes to the knowledge of genetic diversity and population structure of the Appaloosa horse from Argentina. Genetic relationships between this population and other well known breeds, showed that Appaloosa horses from Argentina could have had their origin in the horses of the Nez Perce’s people, while the other Appaloosa horses may have had some interbreeding with Andalusian and Lusitano breeds.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFD190010201, 2021YFD1900901).

Compliance with ethics guidelines

Guangzhou Wang, Gang Ni, Gu Feng, Haley M. Burrill, Jianfang Li, Junling Zhang, and Fusuo Zhang declare that they have no conflicts of interest or financial conflicts to disclose. This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s) 2024. Published by Higher Education Press. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)