PROGRESS ON IMPROVING AGRICULTURAL NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY: UK-CHINA VIRTUAL JOINT CENTERS ON NITROGEN AGRONOM

Highlights

● Virtual joint centers on N agronomy were established between UK and China.

● Key themes were improving NUE for fertilizers, utilizing livestock manures, and soil health.

● Improved management practices and technologies were identified and assessed.

● Fertilizer emissions and improved manure management are key targets for mitigation.

Abstract

Two virtual joint centers for nitrogen agronomy were established between the UK and China to facilitate collaborative research aimed at improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in agricultural production systems and reducing losses of reactive N to the environment. Major focus areas were improving fertilizer NUE, use of livestock manures, soil health, and policy development and knowledge exchange. Improvements to fertilizer NUE included attention to application rate in the context of yield potential and economic considerations and the potential of improved practices including enhanced efficiency fertilizers, plastic film mulching and cropping design. Improved utilization of livestock manures requires knowledge of the available nutrient content, appropriate manure processing technologies and integrated nutrient management practices. Soil carbon, acidification and biodiversity were considered as important aspects of soil health. Both centers identified a range of potential actions that could be taken to improve N management, and the research conducted has highlighted the importance of developing a systems-level approach to assessing improvement in the overall efficiency of N management and avoiding unintended secondary effects from individual interventions. Within this context, the management of fertilizer emissions and livestock manure at the farm and regional scales appear to be particularly important targets for mitigation.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

CINAg / N-CIRCLE / nitrogen use efficiency / reactive nitrogen / sustainable production

References

[1] LarsonC. Climate change. Losing arable land, China faces stark choice: adapt or go hungry. Science , 2013, 339( 6120): 644–645

[2] ChenX, MaL, Ma W, WuZ, CuiZ, HouY, ZhangF. What has caused the use of fertilizers to skyrocket in China. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems , 2018, 110( 2): 241–255

[3] GuoJ H, LiuX J, ZhangY, ShenJ L, HanW X, ZhangW F, ChristieP, GouldingK W T, VitousekP M, ZhangF S. Significant acidification in major Chinese croplands. Science , 2010, 327( 5968): 1008–1010

[4] LiuX, ZhangY, HanW, TangA, ShenJ, CuiZ, VitousekP, ErismanJ W, GouldingK, ChristieP, FangmeierA, ZhangF. Enhanced nitrogen deposition over China. Nature , 2013, 494( 7438): 459–462

[5] JuX T, XingG X, ChenX P, ZhangS L, ZhangL J, LiuX J, CuiZ L, YinB, ChristieP, ZhuZ L, ZhangF S. Reducing environmental risk by improving N management in intensive Chinese agricultural systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 2009, 106( 9): 3041–3046

[6] YuC, Huang X, ChenH, GodfrayH C J, WrightJ S, HallJ W, GongP, NiS, Qiao S, HuangG, XiaoY, ZhangJ, FengZ, JuX, Ciais P, StensethN C, HessenD O, SunZ, YuL, Cai W, FuH, HuangX, ZhangC, LiuH, TaylorJ. Managing nitrogen to restore water quality in China. Nature , 2019, 567( 7749): 516–520

[7] ChenX, CuiZ, FanM, VitousekP, ZhaoM, MaW, Wang Z, ZhangW, YanX, YangJ, DengX, GaoQ, ZhangQ, GuoS, RenJ, LiS, Ye Y, WangZ, HuangJ, TangQ, SunY, PengX, ZhangJ, HeM, Zhu Y, XueJ, WangG, WuL, An N, WuL, MaL, Zhang W, ZhangF. Producing more grain with lower environmental costs. Nature , 2014, 514( 7523): 486–489

[8] NorseD, JuX. Environmental costs of China’s food security. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2015, 209 : 5–14

[9] JuX, Gu B, WuY, GallowayJ N. Reducing China’s fertilizer use by increasing farm size. Global Environmental Change , 2016, 41 : 26–32

[10] ZhangD, WangH, PanJ, LuoJ, LiuJ, GuB, Liu S, ZhaiL, LimdseyS, ZhangY, LeiQ, WuS, Smith P, LiuH. Nitrogen application rates need to be reduced for half of the rice paddy fields in China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2018, 265 : 8–14

[11] SongX, LiuM, JuX, Gao B, SuF, ChenX, ReesR M. Nitrous oxide emissions increase exponentially when optimum nitrogen fertilizer rates are exceeded in the North China Plain. Environmental Science & Technology , 2018, 52( 21): 12504–12513

[12] LadhaJ K, PathakH, KrupnikT J, SixJ, vanKessel C. Efficiency of fertilizer nitrogen in cereal production: retrospects and prospects. Advances in Agronomy , 2005, 87 : 85–156

[13] QuanZ, ZhangX, FangY, DavidsonE A. Different quantification approaches for nitrogen use efficiency lead to divergent estimates with varying advantages. Nature Food , 2021, 2( 4): 241–245

[14] ZhangC, JuX, Powlson D, OenemaO, SmithP. Nitrogen surplus benchmarks for controlling N pollution in the main cropping systems of China. Environmental Science & Technology , 2019, 53( 12): 6678–6687

[15] EUNitrogen Expert Panel. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)— An indicator for the utilization of nitrogen in agriculture and food systems. Wageningen: Wageningen University , 2015

[16] Sylvester-BradleyR, KindredD R. Analysing nitrogen responses of cereals to prioritize routes to the improvement of nitrogen use efficiency. Journal of Experimental Botany , 2009, 60( 7): 1939–1951

[17] SwarbreckS M, WangM, WangY, KindredD, Sylvester-BradleyR, ShiW, Varinderpal-Singh, BentleyA R, GriffithsH. A Roadmap for lowering crop nitrogen requirement. Trends in Plant Science , 2019, 24( 10): 892–904

[18] Agricultureand Horticulture Development Board (AHDB). How best to respond to costly fertiliser nitrogen for use in 2022. AHDB Research Review No. 97. AHDB, 2021. Available at AHDB website on July 8, 2022

[19] LiT, Zhang W, YinJ, ChadwickD, NorseD, LuY, Liu X, ChenX, ZhangF, PowlsonD, DouZ. Enhanced-efficiency fertilizers are not a panacea for resolving the nitrogen problem. Global Change Biology , 2018, 24( 2): e511–e521

[20] AbalosD, JefferyS, Sanz-CobenaA, GuardiaG, VallejoA. Meta-analysis of the effect of urease and nitrification inhibitors on crop productivity and nitrogen use efficiency. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2014, 189 : 136–144

[21] LyuX, WangT, SongX, ZhaoC, ReesR M, LiuZ, XiaotangJ, SiddiqueK H M. Reducing N₂O emissions with enhanced efficiency nitrogen fertilizers (EENFs) in a high-yielding spring maize system. Environmental Pollution , 2021, 273 : 116422

[22] ShaZ, MaX, Wang J, LvT, LiQ, Misselbrook T, LiuX. Effect of N stabilizers on fertilizer-N fate in the soil-crop system: a meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2020, 290 : 106763

[23] ShaZ, MaX, Loick N, LvT, CardenasL M, MaY, Liu X, MisselbrookT. Nitrogen stabilizers mitigate reactive N and greenhouse gas emissions from an arable soil in North China Plain: field and laboratory investigation. Journal of Cleaner Production , 2020, 258 : 121025

[24] ShaZ, LvT, Staal M, MaX, WenZ, LiQ, Pasda G, MisselbrookT, LiuX. Effect of combining urea fertilizer with P and K fertilizers on the efficacy of urease inhibitors under different storage conditions. Journal of Soils and Sediments , 2020, 20( 4): 2130–2140

[25] CarswellA, ShawR, HuntJ, Sanchez-RodriguezA R, SaundersK, CottonJ, HillP W, ChadwickD R, JonesD L, MisselbrookT H. Assessing the benefits and wider costs of different N fertilisers for grassland agriculture. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science , 2019, 65( 5): 625–639

[26] CowanN, LevyP, DrewerJ, CarswellA, ShawR, SimmonsI, BacheC, MarinheiroJ, BrichetJ, Sanchez-RodriguezA R, CottonJ, HillP W, ChadwickD R, JonesD L, MisselbrookT H, SkibaU. Application of Bayesian statistics to estimate nitrous oxide emission factors of three nitrogen fertilisers on UK grasslands. Environment International , 2019, 128 : 362–370

[27] ZhuG, JuX, Zhang J, MüllerC, ReesR M, ThormanR E, Sylvester-BradleyR. Effects of the nitrification inhibitor DMPP (3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate) on gross N transformation rates and N₂O emissions. Biology and Fertility of Soils , 2019, 55( 6): 603–615

[28] FuQ, Abadie M, BlaudA, CarswellA, MisselbrookT H, ClarkI M, HirschP R. Effects of urease and nitrification inhibitors on soil N, nitrifier abundance and activity in a sandy loam soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils , 2020, 56( 2): 185–194

[29] VallejoA, García-TorresL, DíezJ A, ArceA, López-FernándezS. Comparison of N losses (NO₃⁻, N₂O, NO) from surface applied, injected or amended (DCD) pig slurry of an irrigated soil in a Mediterranean climate. Plant and Soil , 2005, 272( 1–2): 313–325

[30] Sánchez-RodríguezA R, CarswellA M, ShawR, HuntJ, SaundersK, CottonJ, ChadwickD R, JonesD L, MisselbrookT H. Advanced processing of food waste based digestate for mitigating nitrogen losses in a winter wheat crop. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems , 2018, 2 : 35

[31] MaD, Chen L, QuH, WangY, MisselbrookT, JiangR. Impacts of plastic film mulching on crop yields, soil water, nitrate, and organic carbon in Northwestern China: a meta-analysis. Agricultural Water Management , 2018, 202 : 166–173

[32] JiangR, LiX, Zhu W, WangK, GuoS, MisselbrookT, HatanoR. Effects of the ridge mulched system on soil water and inorganic nitrogen distribution in the Loess Plateau of China. Agricultural Water Management , 2018, 203 : 277–288

[33] GuoS, JiangR, QuH, Wang Y, MisselbrookT, GuninaA, KuzyakovY. Fate and transport of urea-N in a rain-fed ridge-furrow crop system with plastic mulch. Soil & Tillage Research , 2019, 186 : 214–223

[34] ZhangZ H. Transformation process of soil nitrogen in ridge-furrow maize system with plastic mulch and regulation of N fertilizer. Dissertation for the Master’s Degree. Yangling, China: Northwest A&F University, 2021 ( in Chinese)

[35] ZhangC, ReesR M, JuX. Cropping system design can improve nitrogen use efficiency in intensively managed agriculture. Environmental Pollution , 2021, 280 : 116967

[36] ZhouG, CaoW, BaiJ, XuC, Zeng N, GaoS, ReesR M. Non-additive responses of soil C and N to rice straw and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth L.) mixtures in a paddy soil. Plant and Soil , 2019, 436( 1–2): 229–244

[37] ZhouX, LiaoY, LuY, Rees R M, CaoW, NieJ, LiM. Management of rice straw with relay cropping of Chinese milk vetch improved double-rice cropping system production in southern China. Journal of Integrative Agriculture , 2020, 19( 8): 2103–2115

[38] YangL, BaiJ, ZengN, ZhouX, LiaoY, LuY, Rees R M, NieJ, CaoW. Diazotroph abundance and community structure are reshaped by straw return and mineral fertilizer in rice-rice-green manure rotation. Applied Soil Ecology , 2019, 136 : 11–20

[39] GaoS, ZhouG, ReesR M, CaoW. Green manuring inhibits nitrification in a typical paddy soil by changing the contributions of ammonia-oxidizing archaea and bacteria. Applied Soil Ecology , 2020, 156 : 103698

[40] WuL, Misselbrook T H, FengL, WuL. Assessment of nitrogen uptake and biological nitrogen fixation responses of soybean to nitrogen fertilizer with the SPACSYS. Sustainability , 2020, 12( 15): 5921

[41] CuiZ, ZhangH, ChenX, ZhangC, MaW, Huang C, ZhangW, MiG, Miao Y, LiX, GaoQ, YangJ, WangZ, YeY, Guo S, LuJ, HuangJ, LvS, Sun Y, LiuY, PengX, RenJ, LiS, Deng X, ShiX, ZhangQ, YangZ, TangL, WeiC, JiaL, ZhangJ, HeM, Tong Y, TangQ, ZhongX, LiuZ, CaoN, KouC, YingH, YinY, JiaoX, ZhangQ, FanM, JiangR, ZhangF, DouZ. Pursuing sustainable productivity with millions of smallholder farmers. Nature , 2018, 555( 7696): 363–366

[42] OrrR J, MurrayP J, EylesC J, BlackwellM S A, CardenasL M, CollinsA L, DungaitJ A J, GouldingK W T, GriffithB A, GurrS J, HarrisP, HawkinsJ M B, MisselbrookT H, RawlingsC, ShepherdA, SintH, TakahashiT, TozerK N, WhitmoreA P, WuL, Lee M R F. The North Wyke Farm Platform: effect of temperate grassland farming systems on soil moisture contents, runoff and associated water quality dynamics. European Journal of Soil Science , 2016, 67( 4): 374–385

[43] CarswellA M, GongadzeK, MisselbrookT H, WuL. Impact of transition from permanent pasture to new swards on the nitrogen use efficiency, nitrogen and carbon budgets of beef and sheep production. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2019, 283 : 106572

[44] LoubetB, GénermontS, FerraraR, BedosC, DecuqC, PersonneE, FanucciO, DurandB, RanaG, CellierP. An inverse model to estimate ammonia emissions from fields. European Journal of Soil Science , 2010, 61( 5): 793–805

[45] CowanN, LevyP, MoringA, SimmonsI, BacheC, StephensA, MarinheiroJ, BrichetJ, SongL, PickardA, McNeillC, McDonaldR, MaireJ, LoubetB, VoylokovP, SuttonM, SkibaU. Nitrogen use efficiency and N₂O and NH₃ losses attributed to three fertiliser types applied to an intensively managed silage crop. Biogeosciences , 2019, 16( 23): 4731–4745

[46] CowanN, LevyP, MaireJ, CoyleM, LeesonS R, FamulariD, CarozziM, NemitzE, SkibaU. An evaluation of four years of nitrous oxide fluxes after application of ammonium nitrate and urea fertilisers measured using the eddy covariance method. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology , 2020, 280 : 107812

[47] CowanN, CarnellE, SkibaU, DragositsU, DrewerJ, LevyP. Nitrous oxide emission factors of mineral fertilisers in the UK and Ireland: a Bayesian analysis of 20 years of experimental data. Environment International , 2020, 135 : 105366

[48] ChadwickD, JiaW, TongY, YuG, Shen Q, ChenQ. Improving manure nutrient management towards sustainable agricultural intensification in China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2015, 209 : 34–46

[49] BaiZ, MaL, Jin S, MaW, VelthofG L, OenemaO, LiuL, ChadwickD, ZhangF. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium flows through the manure management chain in China. Environmental Science & Technology , 2016, 50( 24): 13409–13418

[50] ChadwickD R, WilliamsJ R, LuY, Ma L, BaiZ, HouY, ChenX, MisselbrookT H. Strategies to reduce nutrient pollution from manure management in China. Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering , 2020, 7( 1): 45–55

[51] BaiZ, LiX, Lu J, WangX, VelthofG L, ChadwickD, LuoJ, LedgardS, WuZ, Jin S, OenemaO, MaL, Hu C. Livestock housing and manure storage need to be improved in China. Environmental Science & Technology , 2017, 51( 15): 8212–8214

[52] LiuZ, WangX, WangF, BaiZ, ChadwickD, MisselbrookT, MaL. The progress of composting technologies from static heap to intelligent reactor: benefits and limitations. Journal of Cleaner Production , 2020, 270 : 122328

[53] CaoY, WangX, BaiZ, ChadwickD, MisselbrookT, SommerS, QinW, MaL. Mitigation of ammonia, nitrous oxide and methane emissions during solid waste composting with different additives: a meta-analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production , 2019, 235 : 626–635

[54] CaoY, WangX, LiuL, VelthofG L, MisselbrookT, BaiZ, MaL. Acidification of manure reduces gaseous emissions and nutrient losses from subsequent composting process. Journal of Environmental Management , 2020, 264 : 110454

[55] CaoY, WangX, ZhangX, MisselbrookT, BaiZ, MaL. Nitrifier denitrification dominates nitrous oxide production in composting and can be inhibited by a bioelectrochemical nitrification inhibitor. Bioresource Technology , 2021, 341 : 125851

[56] CaoY, WangX, ZhangX, MisselbrookT, BaiZ, MaL. An electric field immobilizes heavy metals through promoting combination with humic substances during composting. Bioresource Technology , 2021, 330 : 124996

[57] CaoY, WangX, ZhangX, MisselbrookT H, BaiZ, WangH, MaL. The effects of electric field assisted composting on ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions varied with different electrolytes. Bioresource Technology , 2022, 344(Pt A): 126194

[58] Agricultureand Horticulture Development Board (AHDB). Nutrient Management Guide (RB209). AHDB , 2021. Available at AHDB website on July 8, 2022

[59] NicholsonF A, BhogalA, ChadwickD, GillE, GoodayR D, LordE, MisselbrookT, RollettA J, SagooE, SmithK A, ThormanR E, WilliamsJ R, ChambersB J. An enhanced software tool to support better use of manure nutrients: MANNER- NPK . Soil Use and Management , 2013, 29(4): 473−484

[60] DoranJ W, SarrantonioM, LeibigM A. Soil health and sustainability. In: Sparks D L, ed. Advances in Agronomy, vol. 56. San Diego: Academic Press , 1996, 1–54

[61] ProutJ M, ShepherdK D, McGrathS P, KirkG J D, HaefeleS M. What is a good level of soil organic matter? An index based on organic carbon to clay ratio. European Journal of Soil Science , 2021, 72( 6): 2493–2503

[62] LalR. Soil health and carbon management. Food and Energy Security , 2016, 5( 4): 212–222

[63] PowlsonD S, WhitmoreA P, GouldingK W T. Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change: a critical re-examination to identify the true and the false. European Journal of Soil Science , 2011, 62( 1): 42–55

[64] JohnstonA E, PoultonP R, ColemanK. Soil organic matter: its importance in sustainable agriculture and carbon dioxide fluxes. In: Sparks D L, ed. Advances in Agronomy, vol. 101. San Diego: Academic Press , 2009, 1–57

[65] ZhaoY, WangM, HuS, Zhang X, OuyangZ, ZhangG, HuangB, ZhaoS, WuJ, Xie D, ZhuB, YuD, Pan X, XuS, ShiX. Economics- and policy-driven organic carbon input enhancement dominates soil organic carbon accumulation in Chinese croplands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 2018, 115( 16): 4045–4050

[66] LiaoQ, ZhangX, LiZ, Pan G, SmithP, JinY, WuX. Increase in soil organic carbon stock over the last two decades in China’s Jiangsu Province. Global Change Biology , 2009, 15( 4): 861–875

[67] PanG, SmithP, PanW. The role of soil organic matter in maintaining the productivity and yield stability of cereals in China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2009, 129( 1–3): 344–348

[68] PanG, ZhouP, LiZ, Smith P, LiL, QiuD, ZhangX, XuX, Shen S, ChenX. Combined inorganic/organic fertilization enhances N efficiency and increases rice productivity through organic carbon accumulation in a rice paddy from the Tai Lake region, China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2009, 131( 3–4): 274–280

[69] RenF, ZhangX, LiuJ, SunN, SunZ, WuL, Xu M. A synthetic analysis of livestock manure substitution effects on organic carbon changes in China’s arable topsoil. Catena , 2018, 171 : 1–10

[70] RenF, MisselbrookT H, SunN, ZhangX, ZhangS, JiaoJ, XuM, Wu L. Spatial changes and driving variables of topsoil organic carbon stocks in Chinese croplands under different fertilization strategies. Science of the Total Environment , 2021, 767 : 44350

[71] PanG, XuX, Smith P, PanW, LalR. An increase in topsoil SOC stock of China’s croplands between 1985 and 2006 revealed by soil monitoring. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2010, 136( 1–2): 133–138

[72] YanX, CaiZ, WangS, SmithP. Direct measurement of soil organic carbon content change in the croplands of China. Global Change Biology , 2011, 17( 3): 1487–1496

[73] ChengK, PanG, SmithP, LuoT, LiL, Zheng J, ZhangX, HanX, YanM. Carbon footprint of China’s crop production—an estimation using agro-statistics data over 1993–2007. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2011, 142( 3–4): 231–237

[74] ChengK, YanM, NayakD, PanG X, SmithP, ZhengJ F, ZhengJ W. Carbon footprint of crop production in China: an analysis of National Statistics data. Journal of Agricultural Science , 2015, 153( 3): 422–431

[75] FengS, TanS, ZhangA, ZhangQ, PanG, QuF, Smith P, LiL, ZhangX. Effect of household land management on cropland topsoil organic carbon storage at plot scale in a red earth soil area of South China. Journal of Agricultural Science , 2011, 149( 5): 557–566

[76] LiZ, Xu X, PanG, SmithP, ChengK. Irrigation regime affected SOC content rather than plow layer thickness of rice paddies: a county level survey from a river basin in lower Yangtze valley, China. Agricultural Water Management , 2016, 172 : 31–39

[77] LiaoY, WuW L, MengF Q, SmithP, LalR. Increase in soil organic carbon by agricultural intensification in Northern China. Biogeosciences , 2015, 12( 5): 1403–1413

[78] ChengK, ZhengJ, NayakD, SmithP, PanG. Re-evaluating biophysical and technologically attainable potential of topsoil carbon sequestration in China’s croplands. Soil Use and Management , 2013, 29( 4): 501–509

[79] GaoB, HuangT, JuX, Gu B, HuangW, XuL, Rees R M, PowlsonD S, SmithP, CuiS. Chinese cropping systems are a net source of greenhouse gases despite soil carbon sequestration. Global Change Biology , 2018, 24( 12): 5590–5606

[80] YangY, FangJ, MaW, Smith P, MohammatA, WangS, WangW. Soil carbon stock and its changes in northern China’s grasslands from 1980s to 2000s. Global Change Biology , 2010, 16( 11): 3036–3047

[81] YangY, FangJ, JiC, Ma W, MohammatA, WangS, WangS, DattaA, RobinsonD, SmithP. Widespread decreases in topsoil inorganic carbon stocks across China’s grasslands during 1980s−2000s. Global Change Biology , 2012, 18( 12): 3672–3680

[82] YangY, JiC, Ma W, WangS, WangS, HanW, MohammatA, RobinsonD, SmithP. Significant soil acidification across northern China’s grasslands during 1980s–2000s. Global Change Biology , 2012, 18( 7): 2292–2300

[83] RazaS, MiaoN, WangP, JuX, Chen Z, ZhouJ, KuzyakovY. Dramatic loss of inorganic carbon by nitrogen-induced soil acidification in Chinese croplands. Global Change Biology , 2020, 26( 6): 3738–3751

[84] NayakD, SaetnanE, ChengK, WangW, KoslowskiF, ChengY F, ZhuW Y, WangK J, LiuJ X, MoranD, YanX, CardenasL, NewboldJ, PanG, LuY, Smith P. Management opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from Chinese agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment , 2015, 209 : 108–124

[85] TangY, LuoL, CarswellA, MisselbrookT, ShenJ, HanJ. Changes in soil organic carbon status and microbial community structure following biogas slurry application in a wheat-rice rotation. Science of the Total Environment , 2021, 757 : 143786

[86] ZhuQ, LiuX, HaoT, ZengM, ShenJ, ZhangF, DeVries W. Modeling soil acidification in typical Chinese cropping systems. Science of the Total Environment , 2018, 613–614: 1339–1348

[87] GouldingK W T. Soil acidification and the importance of liming agricultural soils with particular reference to the United Kingdom. Soil Use and Management , 2016, 32( 3): 390–399

[88] ZhuQ, LiuX, HaoT, ZengM, ShenJ, ZhangF, deVries W. Cropland acidification increases risk of yield losses and food insecurity in China. Environmental Pollution , 2020, 256 : 113145

[89] XuD, Carswell A, ZhuQ, ZhangF, deVries W. Modelling long-term impacts of fertilization and liming on soil acidification at Rothamsted experimental station. Science of the Total Environment , 2020, 713 : 136249

[90] XuD, Zhu Q, RosG, CaiZ, WenS, XuM, Zhang F, deVries W. Calculation of spatially explicit amounts and intervals of agricultural lime applications at county-level in China. Science of the Total Environment , 2022, 806(Pt 4): 150955

[91] CaiZ, XuM, Wang B, ZhangL, WenS, GaoS. Effectiveness of crop straws, and swine manure in ameliorating acidic red soils: a laboratory study. Journal of Soils and Sediments , 2018, 18( 9): 2893–2903

[92] CaiZ, XuM, Zhang L, YangY, WangB, WenS, MisselbrookT H, CarswellA M, DuanY, GaoS. Decarboxylation of organic anions to alleviate acidification of red soils from urea application. Journal of Soils and Sediments , 2020, 20( 8): 3124–3135

[93] CaiZ, WangB, ZhangL, WenS, XuM, Misselbrook T H, CarswellA M, GaoS. Striking a balance between N sources: mitigating soil acidification and accumulation of phosphorous and heavy metals from manure. Science of the Total Environment , 2021, 754 : 142189

[94] ZhangJ, vander Heijden M G A, ZhangF, BenderS F. Soil biodiversity and crop diversification are vital components of healthy soils and agricultural sustainability. Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering , 2020, 7( 3): 236–242

[95] ZhangJ, LiT, Jia J, ZhangJ, ZhangF. Bacterial taxa and fungal diversity are the key factors determining soil multifunctionality in different cropping systems. Land Degradation & Development , 2021, 32( 17): 5012–5022

[96] CuiK, ShoemakerS P. A look at food security in China. NPJ Science of Food , 2018, 2 : 4

[97] LiuZ, DengZ, HeG, Wang H, ZhangX, LinJ, QiY, Liang X. Challenges and opportunities for carbon neutrality in China. Nature Reviews: Earth & Environment , 2022, 3( 2): 141–155

[98] CuiX, ShangZ, XiaL, XuR, Adalibieke W, ZhanX, SmithP, ZhouF. Deceleration of cropland-N₂O emissions in China and future mitigation potentials. Environmental Science & Technology , 2022, 56( 7): 4665–4675

[99] ShangZ, ZhouF, SmithP, SaikawaE, CiaisP, ChangJ, TianH, DelGrosso S J, ItoA, ChenM, WangQ, BoY, Cui X, CastaldiS, JuszczakR, KasimirÅ, MagliuloV, MedinetsS, MedinetsV, ReesR M, WohlfahrtG, SabbatiniS. Weakened growth of cropland-N₂ O emissions in China associated with nationwide policy interventions. Global Change Biology , 2019, 25( 11): 3706–3719

[100] BaiZ, JinS, WuY, zu Ermgassen E, Oenema O, ChadwickD, LassalettaL, VelthofG, ZhaoJ, MaL. China’s pig relocation in balance. Nature Sustainability , 2019, 2( 10): 888

[101] BaiZ, WiniwarterW, KlimontZ, VelthofG, MisselbrookT, ZhaoZ, JinX, OenemaO, HuC, Ma L. Further improvement of air quality in China needs clear ammonia mitigation target. Environmental Science & Technology , 2019, 53( 18): 10542–10544

[102] ShenJ, ZhuQ, JiaoX, YingH, WangH, WenX, XuW, Li T, CongW, LiuX, HouY, CuiZ, OenemaO, DaviesW J, ZhangF. Agriculture Green Development: a model for China and the world. Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering , 2020, 7( 1): 5–13

[103] ZhangW, CaoG, LiX, Zhang H, WangC, LiuQ, ChenX, CuiZ, ShenJ, JiangR, MiG, Miao Y, ZhangF, DouZ. Closing yield gaps in China by empowering smallholder farmers. Nature , 2016, 537( 7622): 671–674

Acknowledgements

This work was supported through Newton Fund via UK BBSRC/NERC (BB/N013484/1 and BB/N013468/1).

Compliance with ethics guidelines

Tom Misselbrook, Zhaohai Bai, Zejiang Cai, Weidong Cao, Alison Carswell, Nicholas Cowan, Zhenling Cui, David R. Chadwick, Bridget Emmett, Keith Goulding, Rui Jiang, Davey L. Jones, Xiaotang Ju, Hongbin Liu, Yuelai Lu, Lin Ma, David Powlson, Robert M. Rees, Ute Skiba, Pete Smith, Roger Sylvester-Bradley, John Williams, Lianhai Wu, Minggang Xu, Wen Xu, Fusuo Zhang, Junling Zhang, Jianbin Zhou, and Xuejun Liu declare that they have no conflicts of interest or financial conflicts to disclose. This article is a review and does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s) 2022. Published by Higher Education Press. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)