Since ancient times, fibrous materials have played a crucial role in human life. Due to their structural features, e.g. a large surface-to-volume ratio and porosity, and enhanced pore connectivity, nanofibrous materials have emerged as a particular area of focus for current research. Among the various related methods, because of the relatively simple equipment required, ease of operation, vast material selection (from polymers to inorganics), and feasibility of continuous production and industrial upscaling, electrospinning is widely utilised to fabricate nanofibres. Advancements in electrospinning technology depend on advancements in both our theoretical understanding and design of advanced manufacturing equipment for the widespread commercial applications of electrospun fibrous materials. This review examines electrospinning technology, covering its fundamental principles, experimental configurations, and diverse applications. Ways to customise the chemical, structural, and functional characteristics of electrospun nanofibres are discussed, with these customizations being essential for such fibres’ wide range of uses, such as in creating waterproof and breathable membranes, air filtration, warmth retention, noise reduction, high-temperature insulation, energy harvesting and storage, biomedicine, and emerging fields. Finally, this paper addresses current challenges facing electrospinning technology and offers future directions of research and development as well as prospective applications.
Spider silk is an archetypal high-performance protein fiber that combines outstanding toughness with biocompatibility and biodegradability. However, the large-scale harvesting of native spidroins remains impractical. Recombinant spider silk proteins (rSSPs) offer a scalable and engineerable alternative to access spidroin-inspired building blocks with tunable sequences, modular architectures, and biofunctionality. Here, we review current rSSP production platforms. From a fiber-centric perspective, we summarize how key processing parameters—such as dope formulation, shear/elongational flow, ion–pH gradients, and post-drawing—govern self-assembly. We explain how these secondary-structure transitions ultimately dictate the hierarchical microstructure and mechanical performance of the fibers. Furthermore, we highlight recent advances in the bioinspired spinning of rSSP fibers and the expansion into fiber-derived formats (e.g., nonwovens, membranes, hydrogels, particles, and porous scaffolds) that leverage textile manufacturability and interfacial design for biomedical applications. Representative applications are systematically categorized into three parallel domains: surgical closures and wound dressings, controlled drug-delivery systems, and tissue engineering, where distinct rSSP architectures and functionalities are explicitly tailored to the regenerative demands of specific organs. Finally, we outline key challenges for translation, including high-yield production of high-molecular-weight spidroins, robust structure–property–function profiling, sterilization stability, and pathways toward scalable manufacturing. Ultimately, this review aims to bridge molecular design, fiber processing, and the biomedical implementation of rSSP-based materials.
Schematic overview of spider silk types and representative spidroins, the recombinant production of recombinant spider silk proteins (rSSPs) in representative host systems, and their spinning/processing into fibers and fiber-derived material formats for emerging biomedical applications.
In situ tissue-engineered heart valves (TEHVs) present significant potential to address critical limitations of conventional replacements: suboptimal hemo-compatibility in mechanical valves and compromised durability in bio-prosthetic valves, alongside their inherent inability to support growth and regeneration. However, current research predominantly employs single-scale fiber-based scaffolds with a focus on short-term outcomes, facing challenges in long-term mechanical instability and pathological remodeling. Herein, we propose an innovative mechano-immunological strategy to engineer a multiscale all-fiber TEHV scaffold, spanning drug-loaded polymer nanofibers to integrated “1D yarn–2D fabric–3D valve” via stepwise conjugate electrospinning–weaving–thermoforming assembly. Mechanical testing confirms that the hierarchically interlocked architecture exhibits excellent interfacial stability, anti-contraction capability, bending compliance, and wrinkle recovery at 1D/2D scales. The resultant 3D valve demonstrates ISO 5840-compliant hemodynamic performance while maintaining functional stability during progressive leaflet thickening. In vitro/in vivo biological evaluations further validate biosafety and concurrent functionalities: fibrotic capsule resistance, suppression of α-SMA-dominant pathological fibrosis, and M2 macrophage-polarization-driven anti-inflammatory remodeling. Collectively, this mechano-immunological combination strategy provides a potential pathway toward sustaining functional homeostasis in preclinical TEHV development.
Long-segment peripheral nerve injury (PNI) often results in persistent functional impairment due to the limited capacity of regeneration and poor functional recovery. Nerve conduits have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance regeneration, particularly those that modulate the immune microenvironments and direct macrophage polarization. In this study, an advanced nerve conduit composed of an outer tube of aligned electrospun poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) fiber and an inner chiral poly(amino acid) hydrogel is designed to promote PNI repair by inducing macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype. The chiral hydrogels are prepared by combining poly(l-lysine) or poly(d-lysine) with poly(l-glutamic acid), resulting in PL-Lys+PL-Glu and PD-Lys+PL-Glu formulations, respectively. Both hydrogels increase the M2/M1 macrophage ratio by 0.85 and 1.03, respectively, and significantly improve motor function recovery and axonal remyelination in a rat model with sciatic nerve defect. Notably, the aligned fiber conduit filled with PD-Lys+PL-Glu achieves a compound muscle action potential of (19.82 ± 1.30) mV, a sciatic functional index of (−55.47 ± 3.56), and a myelin sheath thickness of (0.96 ± 0.12) μm—comparable to those observed in the Autograft group. Transcriptomic analysis reveals that the chiral hydrogel enhances recognition of extracellular matrices and promotes focal adhesion formation, thereby facilitating myelination by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. In summary, the aligned fiber nerve conduit containing chiral poly(amino acid) hydrogel shows strong potential for immunomodulation and functional recovery in the treatment of long-segment PNI.
Smart home, through devices interconnection and collaboration, serves as a vehicle for building future intelligent lifestyles. Among them, the tactile-sensing encryption device can convert user-operated physical signals (e.g., pressure) into electrical signals, forming specific password sequences to achieve personalized information encryption. However, the above devices employ non-biometric encryption technology, facing the bottleneck of encryption sequences being easily cracked, which severely compromises the information security of users. Herein, inspired by the signaling transmission of biological synapse, a biometric tactile-sensing encrypted nerve fiber (BTENF) is fabricated by constructing a synapse-like coupling capacitance micro-structure at the interface between human and the BTENF. Once the finger contacts the BTENF, this capacitance structure can disrupt the original electrical field equilibrium of the BTENF, instantaneously triggering the sensing signal, which can be called the touch current (< 10 ms). Notably, the strength of the current is closely related to the local enrichment capability of free ions within the human body, exhibiting biological specificity. In addition, similar to biological synapses, the BTENF also possesses spatiotemporal dynamic dependency and stimulation-strength perceptual properties. Based on this, by integrating a neural network, a visualization closed-loop biometric tactile encryption system has been fabricated, which can precisely analyze the biometric feature signals and physical feature signals of the touch current triggered by different users (accuracy > 99.24%). As a proof of concept, a smart home with a biometric-level security encryption function is proposed, which can eliminate the risk of password leakage. Therefore, we believe that the BTENF provides a novel technological pathway for the smart home encryption field.
With the rising demand for integrated, flexible, and self-powered systems in wearable electronics, the separation of energy storage and electroluminescent functionalities has become a critical bottleneck limiting their practical application. This study presents an innovative alternating current electroluminescent (ACEL) zinc-ion battery (ZIB) bifunctional fiber electrode (AZ-fiber electrode), fabricated through electrospinning, which integrates conventional electroluminescent materials (ZnS:Cu, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)) into a nanofiber layer. Notably, the cross-linking agent in PDMS facilitates the binding of zinc to the nanofiber layer, whereas the modified hydrogel electrolyte enables functional switching. In the context of ZIBs, the photo-initiator composite hydrogel electrolyte significantly enhances Zn2+ migration and suppresses dendrite formation. The symmetric cells exhibit an exceptional cycle life of 2000 h (1100 h for fiber cells), along with a high volumetric capacity of 180 mAh cm−3 and an energy density of 311.56 mWh cm−3. For the alternating current electroluminescent (ACEL) device, the thermal initiator ensures phase separation, preserving the integrity of the bifunctional layers and achieving a maximum brightness of 120 cd m−2. The AZ-Fiber Device is constructed by sharing the battery anode as a common electrode for both the ZIBs and the ACEL, enabling seamless integration. Furthermore, the AZ-Fiber Device can be woven into textiles, with customizable patterns. By incorporating a direct current/alternating current (DC/AC) converter chip, textiles achieve self-powered luminescence. This integrated AZ-Fiber Device, which combines high energy capacity with substantial flexibility, provides a promising platform for wearable energy-luminescence applications.
This work focuses on the development of eco-friendly, free-standing conductive nonwovens electrospun from poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) for applications in flexible and wearable electronics. The study advances the understanding of PEDOT-based nanofiber mats by employing thermal treatment to enhance their conductivity, followed by extensive electrical, mechanical, and electrochemical characterization. A novel aspect of this research is the environmental evaluation of these materials through ecotoxicological assays. Tests conducted on freshwater and marine organisms, including bacteria, algae, and crustaceans, simulate the potential impact of these nonwoven materials on aquatic ecosystems and address both freshwater compatibility and the unexplored marine toxicity. The findings indicate that the PEDOT-based nonwovens exhibit improved conductivity and mechanical strength upon thermal treatment, while maintaining environmental compatibility. The study also demonstrates the practical application of these materials in a sensorized prototype glove suitable for rehabilitation, highlighting their potential for use in advanced wearable technologies. This multidisciplinary approach bridges material innovation and environmental responsibility by examining the sustainable use of conductive polymers in wearable devices. Overall, the findings highlight the intersection of advances in electrospun nanomaterials and environmental sustainability, contributing to advancements in wearable technologies while promoting eco-responsible material usage.
Smart wearable devices are attracting increasing interest for personal thermal management because they can actively maintain body temperature and help prevent cold-related injury, including hypothermia, in harsh environments. However, current systems often show limited temperature sensitivity under large deformation, insufficient cycling stability, and relatively high energy consumption. Integrating Joule heating and temperature monitoring within a single fiber offers a promising route to improve robustness and enable closed-loop control. Here we report a stretchable temperature-sensing and carbon-nanotube-heating conductive elastic fiber (T-CSEF) fabricated by wet spinning, ultrasonic impregnation, and continuous capillary coating. The T-CSEF provides low-voltage heating (1 V) and a broad temperature-sensing window (0–110 °C). By increasing the applied voltage from 0 to 3 V, the fiber temperature can be tuned from 27.5 to 127.5 °C. When woven into temperature-adjustable electrothermal fabrics, the T-CSEF is expected to support personal thermal therapy and reduce hypothermia risk in extremely cold conditions, expanding the design space for multifunctional smart textiles.
Structure-function schematic of the dual-function smart textile for personal thermal management.
Lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) are promising energy storage devices that combine the high energy density of lithium-ion batteries and the outstanding power density of supercapacitors. In this study, a dual-carbon LIC utilizing etched vertical graphene-grown carbon nanofibers (eVG@CNFs) as anode and etched hollow carbon nanofibers (ehCNFs) as cathode was presented. The eVG@CNFs feature mesoporous surfaces integrated with vertically aligned graphene sheets, enabling efficient Li+ insertion, diffusion, and adsorption for excellent capacity and rate performance. The ehCNFs, derived by carbonization of polymeric core–shell nanofibers, possess hollow nanochannels and an ultrahigh specific surface area of 2884.4 m2 g−1 with favorable porosity for PF6⁻ adsorption. The eVG@CNF//ehCNF LIC operates over a wide operating voltage of 0.8–4.0 V and delivers a specific cell capacity of 47.9 mAh g−1 at 30 A g−1. The hybrid dual-carbon LIC achieves a maximum energy density of 268.5 Wh kg−1 and maintains 115.0 Wh kg−1 even at an ultrahigh power density of 72 kW kg−1. Moreover, it shows great cycling stability, retaining over 84.4% capacitance after 12000 charge–discharge cycles. This work highlights the potential of tailored CNF architectures for high-performance energy storage applications.
The mechanoluminescent (ML) fiber, as a unique type of self-powered material, has become an important material in fields such as visual sensing, flexible displays, and smart wearables. However, their non-continuous processability, low response sensitivity, and limited luminescence capacity severely restrict the development of existing ML fibers for smart wearable electronic textiles. Herein, for the first time, we present an interfacial fusion engineering strategy that enables single-step, large-scale continuous fabrication of micron-sized ML fibers with high sensitivity and durability via hydrogel-assisted coaxial wet spinning. The introduction of temperature-responsive hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) significantly enhanced the interfacial fusion between the core and sheath layers, endowing the fibers with high stress (5.18 MPa), large strain (150%), and excellent toughness (195.57 J/m3). Notably, the ML fiber showed an ultra-low strain threshold (3.3%) and high luminescence sensitivity (K = 318.18), maintaining > 90% of its luminescence intensity after 5000 stretch–release cycles. The ML fibers exhibit luminescence behavior superior to that of previously reported coated fibers. Theoretical calculations suggest that HPC enhances luminescence through reduced electron transition energy and accelerated carrier separation with directional transfer. Moreover, integration with conductive fibers endows the ML fiber with triboelectric sensing capabilities for human motion monitoring. By enabling continuous fabrication of highly sensitive, durable, and bright stress-luminescent fibers with triboelectric sensing, this work opens new avenues for scalable production of multifunctional smart fibers for advanced wearable electronics.
Fluorescent aerogels have attracted enormous attention for their optically tunable and strong emission features; however, integration of white light emission with robust stretchability remains a challenging task. Herein, a facile strategy was proposed to directly synthesize an ultralight, hyperelastic, and superflexible fluorescent aerogel via humidity-induced three-dimensional electrospinning. By manipulating the rapid phase separation of jets containing fluorescent molecules, a large-area (1.2 m × 0.4 m) fluorescent aerogel was developed using crimped aerogel fibers. The hierarchical porous structure effectively inhibited excessive energy transfer between the donor and acceptor, resulting in stable white light emission (0.318, 0.347). Benefiting from the soft–rigid design of fiber compositions and interlocked networks between crimped fibers, the aerogel exhibited exceptional mechanical robustness with tensile up to 4000 times its weight, fatigue resistance of 100000 compression cycles, fast recovery speed of 435 mm s−1, 180° bending, and wide-angle twisting. Furthermore, high porosity (99.7%) originated from aerogel fibers, and fiber networks endowed aerogel with ultralight density (2.9 mg cm−3) and low thermal conductivity (23.8 mW m−1 K−1). The aerogel is also self-cleaning, breathable, and flame-retardant, making it suitable for applications in extreme environments. This study may pave the way for developing versatile fluorescent aerogels for wearable textiles, flexible displays, and information encryption.
The decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) is prized for its innate bioactivity, but notoriously difficult to process into continuous fibers with mechanical robustness, due to its disordered and heterogeneous nature. Here, we report a universal ion-induced alignment and locking strategy that programs disordered dECM proteins into strong, continuous, and bioactive fibers, through the formation of an orientated structure and increased crystallization and aggregation of polymer chains. The resulting dECM fibers exhibit superior mechanical performances, including high strength (15 MPa), toughness (171 MJ/m3), modulus (13 MPa), and excellent immunocompatibility, outperforming many reported natural and synthetic fibers. We demonstrate the practical utility of these fibers as high-performance surgical sutures that promote wound healing and as soft, flexible, and insulating core–shell neural electrodes for effective wireless nerve stimulation and signal recording. Moreover, this strategy proves effective across dECMs from various tissues and enhances the strength of other synthetic fibers such as polyvinyl alcohol, alginate, and gelatin by orders of magnitude. This work overcomes a long-standing challenge in biomaterial processing and provides a versatile platform for fabricating high-performance hydrogel fibers for demanding biomedical applications.
Existing bionic fabrics still face challenges such as poor stability of spectral and transpiration simulation, which seriously limits their advanced camouflage application. Herein, inspired by natural leaves, a self-driven water sorption/desorption bionic polyester (PET) fabric based on a dual-network (DN) hydrogel was developed, which could achieve stable spectral and transpiration simulation. Specifically, polar hydrophilic groups on the surface of DN hydrogels could capture atmospheric water, while the internal osmotic pressure continuously transported the captured water inward and stored it through swelling, thereby dynamically refreshing the adsorption sites. This interaction enhanced the water capture capacity of the bionic fabric, thereby enabling it to effectively mimic the “water absorption valleys” for a long period (30 days). After combining the DN hydrogel with PET fabric, the bionic fabric demonstrated exceptional spectral simulation performance with a spectral correlation coefficient of 0.9908. Furthermore, the automatic sorption and desorption of atmospheric water enable accurate mimicry of leaf transpiration, achieving a smaller temperature difference between the bionic fabric and the natural leaves (≤ 0.9 °C). This self-driven water sorption/desorption bionic fabric addresses the long-standing issue of inferior spectral and transpiration simulation and offers new insights into the development of camouflage fabrics.
It is well recognized that lithium dendrite formation within polymer-based separators severely compromises both the safety and electrochemical performance of lithium metal batteries (LMBs). To mitigate this issue, the development of separator materials that exhibit superior electrolyte wettability and high ionic conductivity is essential. In this work, a novel nanofibrous separator composed of a phthalocyanine-based covalent organic framework (Pc-COF) and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is fabricated via electrospinning and is denoted as PAN@COF. The resulting PAN@COF separator possesses a nanochannel array architecture enriched with lithophilic C=N groups originating from the phthalocyanine-based COF, thereby promoting homogeneous Li⁺ flux distribution. Density functional theory (DFT) simulations indicate that the COF can interact with electrolyte solvent molecules to form a desolvated Li⁺ structure, thereby enabling rapid Li⁺ transport. In situ optical microscopy visually monitored the lithium dendrite deposition during cycling, underpinning the theoretical simulations and kinetic analyses. The separator exhibits exceptional ionic conductivity (1.72 mS cm-1) and a high Li+ transference number (0.78). When applied in a Li||Li symmetric cell, the separator enables uninterrupted cycling stability exceeding 3200 hours at 0.2 mA cm-2. Furthermore, the corresponding pouch cells maintain stability under extreme shear, highlighting their practical reliability. This study presents a novel strategy for developing dendrite-free lithium metal batteries, offering both significant scientific implications and promising application potential.
Fiber alignment in the extracellular matrix provides critical topographical cues for tissue regeneration, yet the underlying epigenetic mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we developed 3D-printable hydrogel microfiber inks to systematically investigate how aligned topography drives muscle regeneration through epigenetic priming. Gelatin-norbornene (GelNB) microfibers (approximately 300 μm in diameter) were fabricated via ultraviolet crosslinking, fragmented, and jammed to create shear-thinning inks for extrusion-based 3D printing. Aligned microfiber scaffolds induced alignment of C2C12 murine skeletal myoblasts with increased nuclear aspect ratios and chromatin decondensation. An assay for transposase-accessible chromatin using sequencing revealed rapid chromatin remodeling within 24 h, with enrichment of master myogenic regulators and mechanosensitive transcription factors at newly accessible sites. RNA-seq confirmed widespread differential gene expression, demonstrating that physical alignment drives chromatin accessibility changes that enable transcriptional activation of muscle differentiation programs. In vivo validation using a volumetric muscle loss model revealed that compared with the perpendicular alignment of control groups, the groups with scaffolds with horizontally aligned fibers achieved superior muscle regeneration, with enhanced tissue recovery and reduced fibrosis. Epigenetic changes observed in vitro were confirmed in vivo, validating the mechanistic link between topographical cues and chromatin remodeling during tissue regeneration. These findings establish that 3D-printed aligned microfiber topography systematically controls epigenetic mechanisms to guide muscle regeneration, providing a powerful platform for the development of regenerative fibrous biomaterials.
The development of cost-effective and high-performance carbon-based electromagnetic wave (EMW) absorbent has attracted much attention, while achieving complete impedance matching of the material with tunable magnetic and dielectric properties remains a challenge. In this study, vacancy-rich CoFe2O4/lignin-derived N-doped carbon nanofiber composites (CFO@LCF) are obtained as a novel EMW absorption material, in which the synergy of magnetic pinning and multi-scale polarization is achieved by cascade effects originated from the size modulation of encapsulated magnetic CoFe2O4 particles, and the defects in both CoFe2O4 and lignin-derived carbon to enhance the EMW dissipation. In addition, the conduction loss is promoted at the same time by the three-dimensional (3D) interconnected conductive carbon nanofiber network, and meanwhile, the magnetic loss facilitated by strong magnetic coupling and pinning effect occurs at the particles. Specifically, the optimal CFO@LCF sample shows superior EMW absorption performance with a minimum reflection loss of − 49.25 dB at the matching thickness of 2.08 mm, and an effective absorption bandwidth of 6.54 GHz covering the whole Ku band. The superior performance confirms its application potential, and also suggests an innovative biomass valorization pathway for the development of next-generation carbon-based EMW absorbent.
Smart fibers/yarns have attracted significant attention due to their highly potential applications in healthcare, astronautics, and human–machine interfaces. However, the fabrication of multifunctional smart fibers/yarns is very challenging, especially while keeping the good flexibility and durability of traditional ones. Herein, inspired by the multi-strand structure of traditional yarns, we developed a multifunctional yarn with integrated sensing (such as strain and temperature) and real-time addressable display units interconnected using a lock-knot joint technique, which enables adjustable positioning of different units. The strain sensing fibers have good elasticity and high sensitivity (gauge factors over 11 for strain within 0–39%), enabling monitoring of most human body deformations. The temperature sensing unit has a sensitivity of 0.27%/°C within 28–38 °C, suitable for monitoring body temperature. Blue, green, and yellow electroluminescent units with a size of 2 mm2 and luminance values of 0.2, 0.8, and 0.1 cd/m2 are integrated with the sensing units in one yarn, enabling sensing and displaying external stimuli in a real-time and addressable manner. The lock-knot yarn exhibits good flexibility, weavability, and washability, facilitating its practical applications. By integrating the smart yarn into clothes, we demonstrated its application in hunchback detection, running position tracking, “clothing climate” warning, and sports training guidance.
The inherent trade-off between mechanical robustness and piezoelectricity in flexible poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) has long limited its practical applications. This work introduces calcium–polyoxometalate sub-nanowires (Ca–POM SNWs) into the PVDF matrix, overcoming this limitation via molecular entanglement and sub-nanoscale interface locking. Within the PVDF matrix, Ca–POM SNWs form a 3D interpenetrating network, enhancing the elastic modulus by 180% and toughness by 619%. During electrospinning, electric field-induced alignment of Ca–POM SNWs creates a periodic architecture that, together with non-covalent interactions, locks PVDF chains into the piezoelectric β-phase, raising its content from 43.6% to 97.9% and the piezoelectric coefficient (d33) by 195%. This synergy also yields anisotropic fibrous membranes with high modulus and toughness. The concurrent mechanical and piezoelectric reinforcement by SNWs-mediated molecular entanglement and interface locking represents a breakthrough beyond the capability of conventional nanofillers. Integrated as a sensor array in a smart insole and combined with machine learning, the PVDF/Ca–POM composite achieves 100% accuracy in classifying six different human motion states, showing promise for early detection and dynamic monitoring of diabetic foot ulcers. This study establishes a new approach to high-performance piezoelectric composites through sub-nanometer-level interfacial engineering.
To effectively ensure the safety of workers in harsh working environments, it is crucial to develop a flexible aerogel sensor that integrates real-time monitoring and physical protection functions. Here, a parallel-sheet structured poly(amide-imide)/bismaleimide/benzoxazine (PAI/BMI/BA-a) fiber aerogel (denoted as PSPBB) was fabricated by ingeniously establishing the bridge-mediated dual affinity between fibers and ice crystals. Benefiting from the interactions of poly(styrenesulfonate) (PSS) with ice crystals, conductive poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT):PSS chains underwent oriented assembly along with the directional growth of ice crystals, while being stably anchored to fibers by virtue of the interactions of PSS with polydopamine (PDA) on the fiber surface. The resultant PSPBB aerogels exhibited a robust scaffold, outstanding fatigue resistance (over 90% height retention after 200 compression cycles), stable sensing performance under 8000 compression cycles, and ultra-wide temperature adaptability (−196 °C to 200 °C). Additionally, the parallel sheets within porous aerogels contributed good thermal-insulation properties, providing real-time monitoring for physiological signals while also offering a critical personal protective barrier. These results underscore the potential of PSPBB aerogels for use in demanding sectors, such as industrial safety, firefighting, and aerospace.
Currently, the development of artificial muscles that simultaneously possess high sensitivity, high linearity, and self-sensing capabilities remains a significant challenge. Inspired by the spider’s slit organ, a novel carbon nanotube/liquid crystal elastomer (CNTs/LCE) artificial muscle has been developed. This structure integrates a crack-based sensing unit, a helical deformation mechanism, and self-sensing functionality. A monolithic architecture featuring a helical crack sensor was constructed, which maintains high sensitivity while achieving a large deformation range. In this configuration, the helical structure serves to "kill two birds with one stone": it acts as a sensor that significantly enhances the strain capability, while also functioning as a twisted helical artificial muscle. Furthermore, the introduced crack structure markedly improves sensing sensitivity. When combined with a porous structure that enhances deformability, and utilizing the helical geometry to further amplify the deformation amplitude (up to 110%) and improve response linearity (R2 = 0.99), the overall performance is significantly advanced. Based on this novel architecture, a corresponding theoretical model was established and finite element simulations were performed using COMSOL. Moreover, the incorporation of CNTs improved the uniformity of thermal distribution within the LCE fiber. It was confirmed that the CNTs-coated LCE fiber exhibits a more homogeneous internal temperature distribution, resulting in enhanced actuation performance—specifically, a 19.2% increase in contraction stroke and an 8-second reduction in contraction time. Additionally, the CNTs network itself possesses excellent sensing properties, enabling real-time and precise perception of multiple mechanical stimuli, including stretching, contraction, and compression. Consequently, the CNTs/LCE fibrous artificial muscle is capable of monitoring its own motion states in real time and can also serve as a circuit protector to safeguard electronic systems.
Foot-mounted wearable equipment is rapidly being applied in healthcare and sports protection. However, it still faces limitations such as un-tunable mechanical properties, insufficient impact cushioning, and single functionality, failing to meet the personalized dynamic requirements. Herein, a magnetorheological-shear stiffening synergistic conductive composite fabric (named MRG/MFC) is proposed for smart insoles, integrating magneto-tunable flexibility, efficient impact cushioning, and electrothermal therapy. Under applying the magnetic field, the modulus of MRG/MFC can be adjusted and the magnetorheological effect of the magnetorheological shear stiffening gel (MRG) reaches up to 3161% (600 mT). Meanwhile, the shear stiffening gel endows the MRG/MFC with the typical rate-dependent energy dissipation, in which the peak impact force can be critically reduced (>45%) and the buffer time can be particularly prolonged (>80%). In addition, MRG/MFC can quickly absorb sweat; thus, it also enhances the wearing comfort. Furthermore, owing to the good electric conductivity, the MRG/MFC shows wonderful electrothermal properties (30–115 °C) under low voltage, and this offers the possibility for foot health care. Finally, a smart insole integrated with MRG/MFC is constructed and its plantar stress distribution can be regulated via attaching a magnetic sticker. As a result, this design concept provides a multifunctional composite for personalized foot protection which possesses wide application potential for athletes and diabetic patients.
The rising frequency of extreme weather events driven by global climate change has created the pressing need for advanced thermal management systems. This study presents a cooling-phase change-heating (CPH) membrane inspired by the functional layering concept of down jackets, where each layer serves a distinct yet complementary role. The cooling side consists of a thermoplastic polyurethane-based fibrous membrane integrated with SiO2-encapsulated paraffin wax (PW@SiO2), which provides effective solar scattering for high reflectance and smoother thermal regulation. On the heating side, polypyrrole (PPy) is directly grown on the thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) membrane (PPy–TPU), serving as a combined photothermal and electrothermal layer for controllable heat input and rapid thermal compensation. The CPH membrane delivers a cooling power of 126 W m−2, with 96.4% reflectivity and 93.7% emissivity, resulting in an average temperature reduction of 6.3 °C assisted by heat absorption of PW@SiO2. In the heating mode, the PPy–TPU layer exhibits a solar absorptance of 97.4%, increasing the temperature by 23.7 °C, while additional Joule heating elevates the membrane temperature to 37 °C under a low input voltage of 4 V. This adaptive buffering and active compensation strategy closely align with practical engineering needs for dynamic thermal regulation, promoting energy conservation and reducing reliance on traditional energy sources.
Reducing energy consumption plays a crucial role in promoting global sustainable development. However, achieving multifunctional collaborative thermal management for both efficient cooling and adaptive temperature regulation remains challenging. Herein, we report a phase-change material-enhanced passive radiative cooling (PCM–PRC) metafabric that integrates radiative cooling, evaporative cooling, and phase-change thermoregulation in a single system. The PCM–PRC exhibits excellent spectral selectivity (97% sunlight reflectivity, 94% selective infrared emissivity), along with high air and moisture permeability. Cooling experiments revealed that under mid-day sunlight (72.5 mW·cm−2 solar intensity) on a sunny day, the PCM–PRC metafabric achieved a 14.4 °C average temperature reduction, significantly outperforming conventional radiative fabrics. Its hierarchical wettability gradient enabled a high water–vapor transmission rate of 0.35 g·cm−2·day−1, thus triggering rapid sweat evaporation and efficient evaporation cooling. Furthermore, the incorporation of phase-change materials enables PCM–PRC with excellent adaptive thermoregulation performance under extreme temperature conditions (60 °C and 7 °C), combined with superior wearing comfort, air permeability, and long-term stability. These results provide a novel strategy for designing smart thermal management textiles with potential applications in adaptive thermal regulation, thermal and humidity comfort management and sustainable energy conservation.
Freestanding electrodes promise higher energy densities and high-rate capabilities by eliminating inactive mass, but they require an interphase that preserves porosity and percolating electronic pathways during cycling. This paper reports a carbon nanofiber (CNF)-supported Si freestanding anode formed by programming the surface chemistry of electrospun polyacrylonitrile (PAN) to guide SiCl4 interfacial hydrolysis–condensation, followed by stabilization/carbonization. KOH pretreatment and annealing generate oxygen- and nitrogen-containing groups that nucleate a uniform Si–O precursor; subsequent carbonization anchors a Si-containing oxide-rich interphase (hereinafter denoted as Si/SiOx, 40–50 nm shell) to the CNF core via Si–O–C bonds. Microscopic and spectroscopic analyses confirmed a conformal carbon-core/Si–SiOx shell without over-coating or aggregation, maintaining junctions and fiber spacing. The freestanding electrodes delivered 727 and 288 mAh g−1 at 0.1 and 10 A g−1, respectively, retaining 85.9% capacity at 0.2 A g−1 and 79.8% at 1 A g−1, and reduced charge-transfer resistance (approximately 130 → 44 Ω) while increasing pseudocapacitive contribution and Li+ diffusivity relative to control electrodes. In LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 (NCM622)//CNF-supported Si full cells, the full cell delivered 176.5 mAh g−1 and retained 91.6% capacity after 300 cycles (approximately 0.028% capacity fade per cycle), demonstrating high-rate cyclability. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first CNF-supported Si freestanding anode that forms a conformal Si/SiOx interphase via PAN surface-functionalization-enabled SiCl4 interfacial hydrolysis–condensation and stabilization/carbonization. The oxide-rich interphase, tethered to the CNF framework, preserves porosity and junctions, buffers Si volume change, stabilizes the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), and sustains fast ionic/electronic transport, thereby enabling high-rate long-life Li-ion battery operation.
Artificial muscle fascicles that mimic the hierarchical structure of biological muscles are essential for translating the high performance of individual artificial muscles into scalable soft robotics applications. However, in electrochemical artificial muscles, the muscle fascicles that consist of anodic and cathodic muscles have asymmetric actuation due to electrochemical imbalance between the anodic and cathodic sides, including voltage, capacitance, and ion volume. This imbalance reduces the overall actuation of muscle fascicles and poses a challenge for soft robot design. We here demonstrate an asymmetric configuration for carbon nanotube (CNT) artificial muscles to resolve both the electrochemical imbalances and the subsequent mechanical imbalance. The ratio of cathodic-to-anodic muscles in the fascicles was tuned to achieve electrochemical balance, and the spring index of the coiled structure was adjusted to match the mechanical modulus between the muscles. This asymmetric strategy was further extended to multiplied structures, forming the basis of artificial muscle fascicles with improved performance. These results provide a scalable strategy for translating high-performance individual CNT artificial muscles into efficient and powerful artificial muscle fascicles for future soft robotic systems.