Hierarchically Structured Biogenic Siliceous Rocks for Electrocatalysis: Advances, Methodologies, and Future Directions

Abstract

Electrocatalysis technology is crucial for energy conversion. However, its widespread application is hindered by the high cost and scarcity of noble metal catalysts. Biogenic siliceous materials, such as diatomite (DT), characterized by hierarchical pore structures and inherent stability, offers a robust platform for developing efficient, cost-effective non-noble metal catalysts. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the DT functionalization and utilization as a template or precursor for synthesizing porous carbon (PC)-based, silicon-based, and metal compound catalysts. The review specifically evaluates the performance of biogenic siliceous materials in key electrocatalytic reactions, including the oxygen evolution reaction, hydrogen evolution reaction, oxygen reduction reaction, and carbon dioxide reduction reaction. Finally, the review outlines research directions to address current challenges, highlighting the criticality of optimizing structural regulations and controllable synthesis to facilitate the practical application of these electrocatalytic materials.

Keywords

Electrocatalytic / Biogenic siliceous rock / Catalyst

References

[1] Yang YL, Li SK, Wu WJet al. . Single-atom catalysts for electrocatalytic conversion of biomass-derived small molecules. Coord Chem Rev. 2025, 534. 216576

[2] Lai JP, Nsabimana A, Luque Ret al. . 3D porous carbonaceous electrodes for electrocatalytic applications. Joule. 2018, 2(1): 76-93.

[3] Ren JT, Wan CY, Pei TYet al. . Promotion of electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction on N-doped porous carbon with secondary heteroatoms. Appl Catal B Environ. 2020, 266. 118633

[4] Chen CE, Wang X, Huang ZJet al. . Engineering of self-supported electrocatalysts on a three-dimensional nickel foam platform for efficient water electrolysis. Trans Tianjin Univ. 2024, 30(2): 103-116.

[5] Jagannathan M, Cho S. Current strategic development of single-atom electrocatalyst in sensor construction: a mini-review. Nano Mater Sci. 2024, 6(6): 780-793.

[6] Zeng JL, Xie WH, Guo Yet al. . Magnetic field facilitated electrocatalytic degradation of tetracycline in wastewater by magnetic porous carbonized phthalonitrile resin. Appl Catal B Environ. 2024, 340. 123225

[7] Zhang XA, Wu DX, Liu XJet al. . Efficient electrocatalytic chlorine evolution under neutral seawater conditions enabled by highly dispersed Co₃O₄ catalysts on porous carbon. Appl Catal B Environ. 2023, 330. 122594

[8] Wang X, Li Q, Feng SZet al. . In situ construction of free-standing high-performance Ni-based dual intermetallic composites for alkaline hydrogen evolution. Trans Tianjin Univ. 2025, 31(2): 131-144.

[9] Ye SH, Xiang BL, Chen ZXet al. . Boosting contact electro-catalysis efficiency via nano-confinement effect in organic wastewater degradation. Nano Energy. 2025, 136. 110702

[10] Wang ZM, Dong XL, Tang Wet al. . Contact-electro-catalysis (CEC). Chem Soc Rev. 2024, 53(9): 4305-4830.

[11] Li Q, Li JH, Bai HMet al. . Progress on facet engineering of catalysts for application in photo/electro-catalysis. Chin J Catal. 2024, 58: 86-104.

[12] He J, Li Z, Feng PJet al. . Piezo-catalysis mechanism elucidation by tracking oxygen reduction to hydrogen peroxide with in situ EPR spectroscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2024, 63(44. e202410381

[13] Wei JS, Li Y, Lin HXet al. . Copper-based electro-catalytic nitrate reduction to ammonia from water: mechanism, preparation, and research directions. Environ Sci Ecotechnol. 2024, 20. 100383

[14] Yang NJ, Krueger A, Hamers RJ. Diamond chemistry: advances and perspectives. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2025, 6425. e202418683

[15] Jana S, Mayerhofer VJ, Teskey CJ. Photo- and electrochemical cobalt catalysed hydrogen atom transfer for the hydrofunctionalisation of alkenes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2023, 6241. e202304882

[16] Liang AJ, Li WB, Li ABet al. . Covalent triazine frameworks materials for photo- and electro-catalysis. Nano Res. 2024, 179): 7830-7839.

[17] Edri R, Williams LD, Frenkel-Pinter M. From catalysis of evolution to evolution of catalysis. Acc Chem Res. 2024, 57(21): 3081-3092.

[18] Wang Y, Yang JJ, Song ZYet al. . Ligand relay catalysis: concepts, principles, and applications in transition-metal catalysis. Chem Soc Rev. 2025, 54(20): 9126-9144.

[19] Lin H, Ma M, Qi Het al. . 3D-printed photocatalysts for revolutionizing catalytic conversion of solar to chemical energy. Prog Mater Sci. 2025, 151. 101427

[20] Sun JC, Lian GW, Chen ZXet al. . Merger of single-atom catalysis and photothermal catalysis for future chemical production. ACS Nano. 2024, 18(51): 34572-34595.

[21] Zhang RW, Sun JL, Chen YZet al. . Advanced porous platinum group metal nano-structural electrocatalysts for water electrolysis, fuel cells and metal-air batteries. Coord Chem Rev. 2025, 543. 216958

[22] Shah SSA, Javed MS, Najam Tet al. . Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) for heterogeneous catalysis: recent trends in design and synthesis with structure-activity relationship. Mater Today. 2023, 67: 229-255.

[23] Lin XG, Chen L, Zhuo JWet al. . Mechanistic insights into the formation of nanofibrous covalent organic frameworks (COFs) and their promotion to the catalysis of hydrodechlorination. Small. 2025, 21(19): 2501113.

[24] Yin CC, Liu M, Zhang Zet al. . Perpendicular alignment of covalent organic framework (COF) pore channels by solvent vapor annealing. J Am Chem Soc. 2023, 1452011431-11439.

[25] Zhou ZB, Fan YJ, Blenko ALet al. . Photochemically stable amide-linked covalent organic framework for efficient dual photoredox and copper catalysis. ACS Catal. 2025, 15(11): 8724-8732.

[26] Jia K, Zhang YN, Zuo Ret al. . MOF-derived CoO_x-CeO₂-_y/C heterojunction synergistically promotes the deposition and decomposition of Li₂S in lithium-sulfur batteries. Trans Tianjin Univ. 2025, 31(2): 189-203.

[27] Zhou W, Deng WQ, Lu X. Metallosalen covalent organic frameworks for heterogeneous catalysis. Interdiscip Mater. 2024, 3(1): 87-112

[28] Liu MH, Xu Q, Zeng GF. Ionic covalent organic frameworks in adsorption and catalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2024, 63(22. e202404886

[29] Ao Q, Jiang L, Song Yet al. . Hierarchical MXene/enzyme@covalent organic framework composite by template method for photothermal-enhanced lipase catalysis. Small. 2025, 2122. 2411962

[30] Sun L, Zhou P, Tang XLet al. . Highly thermally stable anti-opalite TiO_x/ZnO-carbon for achieving targeted transfer of NH₃ oxidation products in multiphase catalysis. Chem Eng J. 2025, 523. 168092

[31] Zhao XL, Gao P, Shen BXet al. . Recent advances in lignin-derived mesoporous carbon based-on template methods. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2023, 188. 113808

[32] Meng XW, Peng YN, Shao ZHet al. . Controllable construction of hollow Fe₃O₄/Ag particles for microwave absorption and photocatalysis. Chem Eng J. 2024, 492. 152282

[33] Li C, Lepre E, Bi Met al. . Oxygen-rich carbon nitrides from an eutectic template strategy stabilize Ni, Fe nanosites for electrocatalytic oxygen evolution. Adv Sci. 2023, 1022. 2300526

[34] Zhong KQ, Yu FY, Zhang Det al. . Data-driven accelerated discovery coupled with precise synthesis of single-atom catalysts for robust and efficient water purification. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2025, 6418. e202500004

[35] Wei ZZ, Wei GT, Xiong DYet al. . Low-cost and green straw derived hierarchical porous carbon as support to phosphotungstic acid for efficient and clean production of α-terpineol. J Clean Prod. 2024, 466. 142846

[36] Li Y, Wang XJ, Xu HBet al. . High zinc removal from water and soil using struvite-supported diatomite obtained by nitrogen and phosphate recovery from wastewater. Environ Chem Lett. 2018, 162): 569-573.

[37] Sheng GD, Yang PJ, Tang YNet al. . New insights into the primary roles of diatomite in the enhanced sequestration of UO₂²⁺ by zerovalent iron nanoparticles: an advanced approach utilizing XPS and EXAFS. Appl Catal B Environ. 2016, 193: 189-197.

[38] Zhu DD, Sutton JN, Leynaert Aet al. . Revisiting the biogenic silica burial flux determinations: a case study for the East China Seas. Front Mar Sci. 2023, 9. 1058730

[39] Shoham E, Prohaska T, Barkay Zet al. . Soft corals form aragonite-precipitated columnar spiculite in mesophotic reefs. Sci Rep. 2019, 9. 1241

[40] Wu HJ, Lu JY, Xiao Det al. . Development and characterization of antimicrobial protein films based on soybean protein isolate incorporating diatomite/thymol complex. Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 110. 106138

[41] Moník M, Nerudová Z, Gregar Fet al. . Chemical fingerprinting of European radiolarites and raw material economies from the Moravian Aurignacian. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 2025, 17(1. 22

[42] Gawlick HJ, Missoni S, Suzuki Het al. . Triassic radiolarite and carbonate components from a Jurassic ophiolitic melange (Dinaridic Ophiolite Belt). Swiss J Geosci. 2016, 1093): 473-494.

[43] Xu R, Huang JF, Guo HJet al. . Functions of silicon and phytolith in higher plants. Plant Signal Behav. 2023, 18(1. 2198848

[44] Sheng HC, Li Y, Feng JQet al. . Regulation of thermodynamics and kinetics of silica nucleation during the silicification process in higher plants. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2023, 198. 107674

[45] Rhimi N, Hajji M, Elkhouni Aet al. . Silicon reduces cadmium accumulation and improves growth and stomatal traits in sea barley (hordeum marinum huds.) exposed to cadmium stress. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 2024, 242): 2232-2248.

[46] Wieler N, Gini TE, Gillor Oet al. . Microbial and geo-archaeological records reveal the growth rate, origin and composition of desert rock surface communities. Biogeosciences. 2021, 18(11): 3331-3342.

[47] Mitchell RL, Davies P, Kenrick Pet al. . Correlative microscopy: a tool for understanding soil weathering in modern analogues of early terrestrial biospheres. Sci Rep. 2021, 11(1. 14

[48] Li BW, Wang T, Le QJet al. . Surface reconstruction, modification and functionalization of natural diatomites for miniaturization of shaped heterogeneous catalysts. Nano Mater Sci. 2023, 53): 293-311.

[49] Guo Y, Messinger J, Kloo Let al. . Alternative mechanism for O₂ formation in natural photosynthesis via nucleophilic oxo-oxo coupling. J Am Chem Soc. 2023, 145(7): 4129-4141.

[50] Li JJ, Liu SP, Zhang XFet al. . MgAl layered double hydroxide nanoplate coatings as corrosion inhibitors for long-term protection of Q235 steel. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2025, 8(9): 4500-4512.

[51] Li JH, Zhang HY, Shi QWet al. . Encapsulated Pt-based nanoparticles for catalysis. Prog Mater Sci. 2024, 146. 101335

[52] Deng YJ, Tian XL, Chi Bet al. . Hierarchically open-porous carbon networks enriched with exclusive Fe-N_x active sites as efficient oxygen reduction catalysts towards acidic H₂–O₂ pem fuel cell and alkaline Zn-air battery. Chem Eng J. 2020, 390. 124479

[53] Wieler N, Ginat H, Gillor Oet al. . The origin and role of biological rock crusts in rocky desert weathering. Biogeosciences. 2019, 16(6): 1133-1145.

[54] Gurova M, Andreeva P, Stefanova Eet al. . Petrographic and geochemical analyses of flint raw materials from Bulgaria: A reliable combination for provenance studies of archaeological flint. Quat Int. 2022, 615: 18-32.

[55] Constantin M, Chioncel MF, Petrescu Let al. . From rock to living systems: Lanthanides toxicity and biological interactions. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025, 289. 117494

[56] Musenich L, Origo D, Gallina Fet al. . Revealing diatom-inspired materials multifunctionality. Adv Funct Mater. 2025, 35(8): 2407148.

[57] Kahlert M, Fölster J, Tapolczai K. No lukewarm diatom communities-the response of freshwater benthic diatoms to phosphorus in streams as basis for a new phosphorus diatom index (pdise). Environ Monit Assess. 2023, 1957. 807

[58] Wang DS, Ping T, Du ZLet al. . Lessons from nature: Advances and perspectives in bionic microwave absorption materials. Nano-Micro Lett. 2025, 171100.

[59] Andresen S, Linnemann SK, Basri ABAet al. . Natural frequencies of diatom shells: Alteration of eigenfrequencies using structural patterns inspired by diatoms. Biomimetics. 2024, 92. 85

[60] Büchel C. How diatoms harvest light. Science. 2019, 3656452447-448.

[61] Kemp AES, Villareal TA. The case of the diatoms and the muddled mandalas: Time to recognize diatom adaptations to stratified waters. Prog Oceanogr. 2018, 167: 138-149.

[62] Nikitashina V, Bartels B, Mansour JSet al. . Metabolic interdependence and rewiring in radiolaria-microalgae photosymbioses. ISME J. 2025, 19(1. wraf047

[63] Chaudhari S, Kumar MS. Marine sponges Sarcotragus foetidus, Xestospongia carbonaria and Spongia obscura constituents ameliorate IL-1 β and IL-6 in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and carrageenan-induced oedema in rats. Inflammopharmacology. 2020, 284): 1091-1119.

[64] Cao PX, Xing L, Luo Jet al. . Preparation of calcium silicate board from tobermorite-rich residue for energy conservation in buildings. Constr Build Mater. 2023, 407. 133547

[65] Piroonpan T, Haema K, Hiangrat Ket al. . Sugarcane bagasse cellulose-PAA micro-composite super-water absorbent for sandy soil amendment: exploring a complete set of studies from one-pot electron beam processing to pot-testing. Ind Crops Prod. 2024, 221. 119219

[66] Sheng J, Zhang MH, Yang RDet al. . High-performance calcium silicate board reinforced by microfibrillated cellulose/microsilica. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2023, 11(18): 7053-7061.

[67] Appiah ES, Mensah-Darkwa K, Andrews Aet al. . Tailoring a hierarchical porous carbon electrode from carbon black via 3D diatomite morphology control for enhanced electrochemical performance. Nanoscale Adv. 2024, 6(24): 6265-6277.

[68] Lee J, Lee YA, Yoo CYet al. . Self-templated synthesis of interconnected porous carbon nanosheets with controllable pore size: mechanism and electrochemical capacitor application. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2018, 261: 119-125.

[69] Radwan OA, Al-Yaseri A, Humphrey JDet al. . Evaluating diatomaceous earth for long-term use in hydrogen storage. ACS Omega. 2024, 9(19): 21580-21586.

[70] Chen K, Li C, Shi LRet al. . Growing three-dimensional biomorphic graphene powders using naturally abundant diatomite templates towards high solution processability. Nat Commun. 2016, 7. 13440

[71] Li JQ, Xu J, Xie ZQet al. . Diatomite-templated synthesis of freestanding 3D graphdiyne for energy storage and catalysis application. Adv Mater. 2018, 30(20. 1800548

[72] Wang X, Chen Z, Jiang Ket al. . 3D host design strategies guiding "bottom-up" lithium deposition: a review. Adv Energy Mater. 2024, 1419): 2304229.

[73] Li LS, Zhang YJ, Long ZXet al. . In-situ constructing a mixed-conductive interfacial protective layer for ultra-stable lithium metal anodes. Energy Environ Mater. 2025, 82. e12836

[74] Chen C, Zhang JM, Hu BRet al. . Dynamic gel as artificial interphase layer for ultrahigh-rate and large-capacity lithium metal anode. Nat Commun. 2023, 1414018.

[75] Rao XB, Zhang SM, Zhang JJ. Carbon semi-tubes for electrochemical energy catalysis. Electrochem Energy Rev. 2025, 81. 7

[76] Kwon G, Gwon H, Bae Yet al. . Disorder-driven sintering-free garnet-type solid electrolytes. Nat Commun. 2025, 161. 3256

[77] Zhou F, Li Z, Lu YYet al. . Diatomite derived hierarchical hybrid anode for high performance all-solid-state lithium metal batteries. Nat Commun. 2019, 10. 2482

[78] Chen JM, Zhang HL, Peng Xet al. . Heterostructure engineering of transition metal dichalcogenides for high-performance supercapacitors. Rare Met. 2025, 44118198-8236.

[79] Ma WC, Wu HM, Long Tet al. . Bamboo inspired silicon anodes with ultrahigh initial coulombic efficiency and high capacity for the Li-ion batteries. Small. 2024, 20(14): 2308109.

[80] Na IK, Kim H, Kunze Set al. . Monolithic 100% silicon wafer anode for all- solid-state batteries achieving high areal capacity at room temperature. ACS Energy Lett. 2023, 841936-1943.

[81] Song Y, Song BY, Kim Bet al. . Designing highly packed silicon anode slurries for high capacity and prolonged lifespan of lithium-ion batteries. Chem Eng J. 2023, 474. 145606

[82] Huo HY, Jiang M, Bai Yet al. . Chemo-mechanical failure mechanisms of the silicon anode in solid-state batteries. Nat Mater. 2024, 23(4): 543-551.

[83] Chen YB, Huang JT, Chen Zet al. . Electrospun sandwich-structured C@Si/C@C as anode for advanced lithium-ion batteries. Appl Surf Sci. 2025, 699. 163139

[84] Zhang Y, Zhang R, Chen SCet al. . Diatomite-derived hierarchical porous crystalline-amorphousnetwork for high-performance and sustainable Si anodes. Adv Funct Mater. 2020, 30(50): 2005956.

[85] Di F, Wang N, Li LXet al. . Coral-like porous composite material of silicon and carbon synthesized by using diatomite as self-template and precursor with a good performance as anode of lithium-ions battery. J Alloys Compd. 2021, 854. 157253

[86] Choobari SFM, Nematollahzadeh A, Babolan NM. Inverse fluidized bed reactor enhanced with silver nanoparticle catalysts-embedded starch-based hydrogel for the sustainable conversion of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol. Chem Eng J. 2025, 510. 161612

[87] Chen CS, Chen TC, Chiu KLet al. . Highly active Cu-embedded in magnetic carbon nanofibers for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol. Chem Eng J. 2025, 505. 159103

[88] Sokolova D, Lurshay TC, Rowbotham JSet al. . Selective hydrogenation of nitro compounds to amines by coupled redox reactions over a heterogeneous biocatalyst. Nat Commun. 2024, 151. 7297

[89] Liao Q, Song YJ, Li WJet al. . Perspectives of nickel-based catalysts in carbon dioxide electroreduction. J Mater Sci Technol. 2025, 218: 108-125.

[90] Jaleh B, Nasri A, Eslamipanah Met al. . State-of-the-art and perspectives of nickel-based single-atom catalysts. Appl Catal B Environ. 2025, 361. 124590

[91] Jiang DB, Liu XY, Yuan YSet al. . Biotemplated top-down assembly of hybrid Ni nanoparticles/N doping carbon on diatomite for enhanced catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol. Chem Eng J. 2020, 383. 123156

[92] Zhao YP, Sun Q, Zhang Jet al. . Construction of Fe/N/C nano-clusters anchored on porous diatomite for efficient removal of norfloxacin via the adsorption-pms activation. Sep Purif Technol. 2023, 310. 123127

[93] Wen X, Feng W, Li XHet al. . Diatomite-templated synthesis of single-atom cobalt-doped MoS₂/carbon composites to boost sodium storage. Adv Mater. 2023, 3536. 2211690

[94] Yan CY, Jiang ZY, Yang CHet al. . The important role of diatomite on multifunctional modified separator of Li-S battery. Chem Eng J. 2024, 495. 153826

[95] Scotland P, Eddy L, Chen JHet al. . Heteroatom-substituted reflashed graphene. ACS Nano. 2025, 191211987-11998.

[96] Sakuma T, Sato R, Yamaguchi Aet al. . Synthesis of amorphous graphene and graphene oxide analogues. J Am Chem Soc. 2025, 147(13): 11564-11573.

[97] López-Cámara CF, Fortugno P, Heidelmann Met al. . Graphene self-folding: evolution of free-standing few-layer graphene in plasma synthesis. Carbon. 2024, 218. 118732

[98] Gong XB, Zhang XF, Wang DSet al. . Three-dimensional graphene aerogel materials for supercapacitors: strategies and mechanisms. Energy Environ Mater. 2025, 8(6. e70054

[99] Le QJ, Huang M, Wang Tet al. . Biotemplate derived three dimensional nitrogen doped graphene@MnO₂ as bifunctional material for supercapacitor and oxygen reduction reaction catalyst. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2019, 544: 155-163.

[100] Huang YG, Wang YY, Cai YZet al. . Diatomite waste derived N-doped porous carbon for applications in the oxygen reduction reaction and supercapacitors. Nanoscale Adv. 2021, 313): 3860-3866.

[101] Wang YB, Ge XL, Lu Qet al. . Accelerated deprotonation with a hydroxy-silicon alkali solid for rechargeable zinc-air batteries. Nat Commun. 2023, 14(1. 6968

[102] Lv XW, Wang ZL, Lai ZZet al. . Rechargeable zinc-air batteries: advances, challenges, and prospects. Small. 2024, 204. 2306396

[103] Huang XR, Zhang W, Xiao LYet al. . Electron modulation in Cr-doped NiFeOOH enhances oxygen evolution reaction activity and stabilizes Cr dopant. Trans Tianjin Univ. 2025, 313): 292-305.

[104] Wang C, Li KL, Sun Qet al. . Diatomite-like KFeS₂ for use in high-performance electrodes for energy storage and oxygen evolution. Nanomaterials. 2023, 13(4. 643

[105] Liu SD, Zhang HL, Peng Xet al. . Emerging issues and opportunities of 2D layered transition metal dichalcogenide architectures for supercapacitors. ACS Nano. 2025, 1914): 13591-13636.

[106] Chen L, Yang LY, Hu LYet al. . Facile and adjustable production of self-standing oxygen-doped graphene membranes for optimized oxygen evolution electrocatalysis. Nano Mater Sci. 2025, 7(2): 231-239.

[107] Chandrasekaran S, Hu R, Yao Let al. . Mutual self-regulation of d-electrons of single atoms and adjacent nanoparticles for bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysis and rechargeable zinc-air batteries. Nano-Micro Lett. 2023, 15(1. 48

[108] Wang K, Tang ZH, Wu Wet al. . Nanocomposites CoPt-x/Diatomite-C as oxygen reversible electrocatalysts for zinc-air batteries: diatomite boosted the catalytic activity and durability. Electrochim Acta. 2018, 284: 119-127.

[109] Trudinger C. Seeing carbon dioxide emissions through the trees. Nat Clim Change. 2023, 139): 899-900.

[110] Ignacz G, Beke AK, Toth Vet al. . A hybrid modelling approach to compare chemical separation technologies in terms of energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. Nat Energy. 2025, 10(3): 308-317.

[111] Wang XR, Zhao SL, Guo Tet al. . Designing membrane electrode assembly for electrochemical CO₂ reduction: a review. Trans Tianjin Univ. 2024, 30(2): 117-129.

[112] Altaf F, Ahmed S, Ali Set al. . Transforming natural resources into advanced solutions: the contribution of clay-based adsorbents to carbon dioxide (CO₂) adsorption. Trans Tianjin Univ. 2025, 31(2): 74-130.

[113] Chen T, Zhao ZY, Zhang SLet al. . Recent progress in solid-state electrolyte for electrocatalytic CO₂ reduction. Adv Energy Mater. 2025, 15(41. 2502092

[114] Chang B, Min ZJ, Liu Net al. . Electrocatalytic CO₂ reduction to syngas. Green Energy Environ. 2024, 97): 1085-1100.

[115] Liang LX, Lin YJ, Zhou WTet al. . Formate and CO* radicals intermediated atmospheric CO₂ conversion over Co-Ni bimetallic catalysts assembled on diatomite. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024, 16(46): 63440-63454.

[116] Li P, Qiu XD, Li LLet al. . Low-cost diatomite-loaded ZrO(OH)₂ as an efficient green catalyst for amine-based carbon capture. Fuel. 2025, 385. 134200

[117] Yar A, Okbaz A, Parlayici S. A biocompatible, eco-friendly, and high-performance triboelectric nanogenerator based on sepiolite, bentonite, and kaolin decorated chitosan composite film. Nano Energy. 2023, 110. 108354

[118] Alptekin FM, Zanoletti A, Depero LEet al. . Accelerated carbonation of municipal waste fly ash for carbon sequestration: a review. Environ Chem Lett. 2025, 23(6): 1661-1687.

[119] Lee D, Kim WK, Moon J. Enhanced carbonation performance of rice husk ash blended cement-based composites through in-situ CO₂ mixing. Cem Concr Compos. 2025, 160. 106040

[120] Yi JC, Fu RC, Wei Yet al. . From low-cost mineral to high-performance Li₄SiO₄ for solar energy storage and CO₂ capture. Sep Purif Technol. 2025, 354(4. 129050

[121] Lee HO, Kim Y, Park Jet al. . Innovative pressurized diesel reforming for sustainable hydrogen production using advanced PtRu-CGO catalyst. Energy Convers Manage. 2024, 320. 118973

[122] Wang C, Chen TH, Liu HBet al. . Promotional catalytic oxidation of airborne formaldehyde over mineral-supported MnO₂ at ambient temperature. Appl Clay Sci. 2019, 182. 105289

[123] Yuan F, Li CQ, Yang RFet al. . Polyaniline π-electron mediated electron-hole separation of TiO₂/diatomite composite for enhancing visible light-induced indoor formaldehyde degradation. Appl Surf Sci. 2023, 612. 155855

[124] Ping T, Wang DS, Wang Cet al. . Scalable Ni_xS_y@diatomite core-shell architectures with thermodynamic stability for bifunctional microwave absorption and oxygen evolution catalysis. Solid State Sci. 2025, 170. 108112

[125] Zhang H, Diao JF, Liu YHet al. . In-situ-grown Cu dendrites plasmonically enhance electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution on facet-engineered Cu₂O. Adv Mater. 2023, 3542. 2305742

[126] Kumar M, Singh S, Samanta Det al. . Electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) with triphenylamine based metal-free conjugated porous organic polymers (POPs). Small. 2025, 2116. 2500502

[127] Huang K, Li R, Qi HDet al. . Regulating adsorption of intermediates via the sulfur modulating dual-atomic sites for boosting CO₂RR. ACS Catal. 2024, 1411): 8889-8898.

[128] Chen WT, Shiu HW, Chen YXet al. . Highly selective toward her or CO₂RR by regulating Cu single and dual atoms on g-C₃N₄. Adv Funct Mater. 2025, 3610. e14183

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)