Application and Progress of Confinement Synthesis Strategy in Electrochemical Energy Storage

Abstract

Designing high-performance nanostructured electrode materials is the current core of electrochemical energy storage devices. Multi-scaled nanomaterials have triggered considerable interest because they effectively combine a library of advantages of each component on different scales for energy storage. However, serious aggregation, structural degradation, and even poor stability of nanomaterials are well-known issues during electrochemically driven volume expansion/contraction processes. The confinement strategy provides a new route to construct controllable internal void spaces to avoid the intrinsic volume effects of nanomaterials during the reaction or charge/discharge process. Herein, we discuss the confinement strategies and methods for energy storage-related electrode materials with a one-dimensional channel, two-dimensional interlayer, and three-dimensional space as reaction environments. For each confinement environment, the correlation between the confinement condition/structure and the behavioral characteristics of energy storage devices in the scope of metal–ion batteries (e.g., Li-ion, Na-ion, K-ion, and Mg-ion batteries), Li–S batteries (LSBs), Zn–air batteries (ZIBs), and supercapacitors. Finally, we discussed the challenges and perspectives on future nanomaterial confinement strategies for electrochemical energy storage devices.

Keywords

Confinement / Electrochemical energy storage / Nanomaterials / Batteries / Supercapacitors

References

[1] Liu C, Wang Y, Sun J, et al. A review on applications of layered phosphorus in energy storage. Trans Tianjin Univ, 2020, 26(2): 104-126.

[2] Aricò AS, Bruce P, Scrosati B, et al. Nanostructured materials for advanced energy conversion and storage devices. Nat Mater, 2005, 4(5): 366-377.

[3] Pu XJ, Wang HM, Zhao D, et al. Recent progress in rechargeable sodium-ion batteries: toward high-power applications. Small, 2019, 15(32): e1805427.

[4] Fu J, Liang RL, Liu GH, et al. Recent progress in electrically rechargeable zinc-air batteries. Adv Mater, 2019, 31(31): e1805230.

[5] Pomerantseva E, Bonaccorso F, Feng XL, et al. Energy storage: the future enabled by nanomaterials. Science, 2019, 366(6468): eaan8285.

[6] Dou YH, Zhang L, Xu X, et al. Atomically thin non-layered nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion. Chem Soc Rev, 2017, 46(23): 7338-7373.

[7] Zhao CX, Liu JN, Wang J, et al. A clicking confinement strategy to fabricate transition metal single-atom sites for bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysis. Sci Adv, 2022, 8(11): eabn5091.

[8] Zhou JD, Kong XH, Sekhar MC, et al. Epitaxial synthesis of monolayer PtSe₂ single crystal on MoSe₂ with strong interlayer coupling. ACS Nano, 2019, 13(10): 10929-10938.

[9] Wei QL, Xiong FY, Tan SS, et al. Porous one-dimensional nanomaterials: design, fabrication and applications in electrochemical energy storage. Adv Mater, 2017, 29(20): 1602300.

[10] He HN, Sun D, Tang YG, et al. Understanding and improving the initial Coulombic efficiency of high-capacity anode materials for practical sodium ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater, 2019, 23: 233-251.

[11] Dubal DP, Chodankar NR, Kim DH, et al. Towards flexible solid-state supercapacitors for smart and wearable electronics. Chem Soc Rev, 2018, 47(6): 2065-2129.

[12] Li ZP, Zhu KJ, Liu P, et al. 3D confinement strategy for dendrite-free sodium metal batteries. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12(4): 2100359.

[13] Li HP, Guo C, Zhang TS, et al. Hierarchical confinement effect with zincophilic and spatial traps stabilized Zn-based aqueous battery. Nano Lett, 2022, 22(10): 4223-4231.

[14] Tang TY, Hou YL Chemical confinement and utility of lithium polysulfides in lithium sulfur batteries. Small Methods, 2020, 4(6): 1900001.

[15] Wang SJ, Xiong P, Guo X, et al. A stable conversion and alloying anode for potassium-ion batteries: a combined strategy of encapsulation and confinement. Adv Funct Mater, 2020, 30(27): 2001588.

[16] Hu H, Jia X, Wang J, et al. Confinement of PMO₁₂ in hollow SiO₂-PMO₁₂@rgo nanospheres for high-performance lithium storage. Inorg Chem Front, 2021, 8(2): 352-360.

[17] Ye C, Jiao Y, Chao DL, et al. Electron-state confinement of polysulfides for highly stable sodium–sulfur batteries. Adv Mater, 2020, 32(12): e1907557.

[18] Yu JH, Corma A, Li Y Functional porous materials chemistry. Adv Mater, 2020, 32(44): e2006277.

[19] Wang ML, Zhang Y, Zhang TY, et al. Confinement of single polyoxometalate clusters in molecular-scale cages for improved flexible solid-state supercapacitors. Nanoscale, 2020, 12(22): 11887-11898.

[20] Li M, Ye C, Li Z, et al. 1D confined materials synthesized via a coating method for thermal catalysis and energy storage applications. J Mater Chem A, 2022, 10(12): 6330-6350.

[21] Zhou JD, Lin JH, Sims H, et al. Synthesis of co-doped MoS₂ monolayers with enhanced valley splitting. Adv Mater, 2020, 32(11): e1906536.

[22] Poudel MB, Kim HJ Confinement of Zn–Mg–Al-layered double hydroxide and α-Fe₂O₃ nanorods on hollow porous carbon nanofibers: a free-standing electrode for solid-state symmetric supercapacitors. Chem Eng J, 2022, 429: 132345.

[23] Song KX, Feng Y, Zhou XY, et al. Exploiting the trade-offs of electron transfer in MOF-derived single Zn/Co atomic couples for performance-enhanced zinc-air battery. Appl Catal B Environ, 2022, 316: 121591.

[24] Xu HX, Zhang GZ, Wang Y, et al. Size-dependent oxidation-induced phase engineering for MOFs derivatives via spatial confinement strategy toward enhanced microwave absorption. Nanomicro Lett, 2022, 14(1): 102.

[25] Zhang XY, Xue DP, Jiang S, et al. Rational confinement engineering of MOF-derived carbon-based electrocatalysts toward CO₂ reduction and O₂ reduction reactions. InfoMat, 2022, 4(3): e12257.

[26] Xiao JP, Pan XL, Zhang F, et al. Size-dependence of carbon nanotube confinement in catalysis. Chem Sci, 2017, 8(1): 278-283.

[27] Cortés-Del Río E, Mallet P, González-Herrero H, et al. Quantum confinement of Dirac quasiparticles in graphene patterned with sub-nanometer precision. Adv Mater, 2020, 32(30): e2001119.

[28] Hellstern TR, Nielander AC, Chakthranont P, et al. Nanostructuring strategies to increase the photoelectrochemical water splitting activity of silicon photocathodes. ACS Appl Nano Mater, 2019, 2(1): 6-11.

[29] Wang L, Peng MK, Chen JR, et al. Eliminating the micropore confinement effect of carbonaceous electrodes for promoting Zn-ion storage capability. Adv Mater, 2022, 34(39): e2203744.

[30] Fu JJ, Shen ZW, Cai DP, et al. A hierarchical VN/Co₃ZnC@NCNT composite as a multifunctional integrated host for lithium–sulfur batteries with enriched adsorption sites and accelerated conversion kinetics. J Mater Chem A, 2022, 10(38): 20525-20534.

[31] Xie YH, Ao J, Zhang L, et al. Multi-functional bilayer carbon structures with micrometer-level physical encapsulation as a flexible cathode host for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Chem Eng J, 2023, 451: 139017.

[32] Karakachian H, Nguyen TTN, Aprojanz J, et al. One-dimensional confinement and width-dependent bandgap formation in epitaxial graphene nanoribbons. Nat Commun, 2020, 11(1): 6380.

[33] Zhang L, Ling M, Feng J, et al. Effective electrostatic confinement of polysulfides in lithium/sulfur batteries by a functional binder. Nano Energy, 2017, 40: 559-565.

[34] Li Z, Ji SF, Liu YW, et al. Well-defined materials for heterogeneous catalysis: from nanoparticles to isolated single-atom sites. Chem Rev, 2020, 120(2): 623-682.

[35] Du J, Liu L, Hu ZP, et al. Order mesoporous carbon spheres with precise tunable large pore size by encapsulated self-activation strategy. Adv Funct Mater, 2018, 28(33): 1802332.

[36] Yang S, Wang ML, Zhang Y, et al. Single-molecule confinement induced intrinsic multi-electron redox-activity to enhance supercapacitor performance. Energy Environ Mater EEM, 2022

[37] Dai JJ, Zhang HB Recent advances in catalytic confinement effect within micro/meso-porous crystalline materials. Small, 2021, 17(22): e2005334.

[38] He QQ, Xu TF, Li JJ, et al. Confined PdMo ultrafine nanowires in CNTs for superior oxygen reduction catalysis. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12(26): 2200849.

[39] White RJ, Luque R, Budarin VL, et al. Supported metal nanoparticles on porous materials. Methods Appl Chem Soc Rev, 2009, 38(2): 481-494.

[40] Luo B, Wu P, Zhang JF, et al. Van der Waals heterostructure engineering by 2D space-confinement for advanced potassium-ion storage. Nano Res, 2021, 14(11): 3854-3863.

[41] Qian CZ, Shao WQ, Zhang XY, et al. Competitive coordination-pairing between Ru clusters and single-atoms for efficient hydrogen evolution reaction in alkaline seawater. Small, 2022, 18(40): e2204155.

[42] Yuan EX, Zhou MX, Shi GJ, et al. Ultralow-loading single-atom cobalt on graphitic carbon nitrogen with robust Co–N pairs for aerobic cyclohexane oxidation. Nano Res, 2022, 15(10): 8791-8803.

[43] Liang H, Liu BJ, Tang B, et al. Atomically precise metal nanocluster-mediated photocatalysis. ACS Catal, 2022, 12(7): 4216-4226.

[44] Wang Y, Deng Z, Huang JY, et al. 2D Zr-Fc metal–organic frameworks with highly efficient anchoring and catalytic conversion ability towards polysulfides for advanced Li–S battery. Energy Storage Mater, 2021, 36: 466-477.

[45] Zhang MR, Singh V, Hu XF, et al. Efficient olefins epoxidation on ultrafine H₂O–WO _x nanoparticles with spectroscopic evidence of intermediate species. ACS Catal, 2019, 9(9): 7641-7650.

[46] Song ZR, Zhang GY, Deng XL, et al. Strongly coupled interfacial engineering inspired by robotic arms enable high-performance sodium-ion capacitors. Adv Funct Mater, 2022, 32(38): 2205453.

[47] Liang QR, Li WQ, Xie L, et al. General synergistic capture-bonding superassembly of atomically dispersed catalysts on micropore-vacancy frameworks. Nano Lett, 2022, 22(7): 2889-2897.

[48] Liu J, Zhang J, Zhang Z, et al. Epitaxial electrocrystallization of magnesium via synergy of magnesiophilic interface, lattice matching, and electrostatic confinement. ACS Nano, 2022, 16(6): 9894-9907.

[49] Xiong PX, Han XP, Zhao XX, et al. Room-temperature potassium–sulfur batteries enabled by microporous carbon stabilized small-molecule sulfur cathodes. ACS Nano, 2019, 13(2): 2536-2543.

[50] Jordan JW, Townsend WJV, Johnson LR, et al. Electrochemistry of redox-active molecules confined within narrow carbon nanotubes. Chem Soc Rev, 2021, 50(19): 10895-10916.

[51] Cheng X, Wang JM, Zhao K, et al. Spatially confined iron single-atom and potassium ion in carbon nitride toward efficient CO₂ reduction. Appl Catal B Environ, 2022, 316: 121643.

[52] Park S, Lee YL, Yoon Y, et al. Reducing the high hydrogen binding strength of vanadium carbide MXene with atomic Pt confinement for high activity toward HER. Appl Catal B Environ, 2022, 304: 120989.

[53] Jiang QQ, Wang L, Zhao WF, et al. Carbon dots decorated on the ultrafine metal sulfide nanoparticles implanted hollow layered double hydroxides nanocages as new-type anodes for potassium-ion batteries. Chem Eng J, 2022, 433: 133539.

[54] Chai YC, Dai WL, Wu GJ, et al. Confinement in a zeolite and zeolite catalysis. Acc Chem Res, 2021, 54(13): 2894-2904.

[55] Xiang R, Inoue T, Zheng YJ, et al. One-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures. Science, 2020, 367(6477): 537-542.

[56] Qin JK, Liao PY, Si MW, et al. Raman response and transport properties of tellurium atomic chains encapsulated in nanotubes. Nat Electron, 2020, 3(3): 141-147.

[57] Mo ZL, Tai DZ, Zhang H, et al. A comprehensive review on the adsorption of heavy metals by zeolite imidazole framework (ZIF-8) based nanocomposite in water. Chem Eng J, 2022, 443: 136320.

[58] Xiao LY, Wang ZL, Guan JQ 2D MOFs and their derivatives for electrocatalytic applications: recent advances and new challenges. Coord Chem Rev, 2022, 472: 214777.

[59] Wang YX, Su HY, He YH, et al. Advanced electrocatalysts with single-metal-atom active sites. Chem Rev, 2020, 120(21): 12217-12314.

[60] He YH, Hwang S, Cullen DA, et al. Highly active atomically dispersed CoN₄ fuel cell cathode catalysts derived from surfactant-assisted MOFs: carbon-shell confinement strategy. Energy Environ Sci, 2019, 12(1): 250-260.

[61] Wang N, Sun QM, Yu JH Ultrasmall metal nanoparticles confined within crystalline nanoporous materials: a fascinating class of nanocatalysts. Adv Mater, 2019, 31(1): e1803966.

[62] Ding JN, Wang YD, Huang ZC, et al. Toward theoretical capacity and superhigh power density for potassium-selenium batteries via facilitating reversible potassiation kinetics. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2022, 14(5): 6828-6840.

[63] Li XY, Li RH, Peng K, et al. Interlayer functionalization of vermiculite derived silica with hierarchical layered porous structure for stable CO₂ adsorption. Chem Eng J, 2022, 435: 134875.

[64] Aftabuzzaman M, Shamsuddin Ahmed M, Matyjaszewski K, et al. Nanocrystal co-existed highly dense atomically disperse Pt@3D-hierarchical porous carbon electrocatalysts for tri-iodide and oxygen reduction reactions. Chem Eng J, 2022, 446: 137249.

[65] Hao MM, Li ZH Efficient visible light initiated one-pot syntheses of secondary amines from nitro aromatics and benzyl alcohols over Pd@NH₂-UiO-66(Zr). Appl Catal B Environ, 2022, 305: 121031.

[66] Yang XC, Sun JK, Kitta M, et al. Encapsulating highly catalytically active metal nanoclusters inside porous organic cages. Nat Catal, 2018, 1(3): 214-220.

[67] Kou JH, Sun LB Fabrication of metal–organic frameworks inside silica nanopores with significantly enhanced hydrostability and catalytic activity. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2018, 10(14): 12051-12059.

[68] Wang ZQ, Luo RC, Johnson I, et al. Inlaid ReS₂ quantum dots in monolayer MoS₂. ACS Nano, 2020, 14(1): 899-906.

[69] Wang WY, Zhou W, Li W, et al. In-situ confinement of ultrasmall palladium nanoparticles in silicalite-1 for methane combustion with excellent activity and hydrothermal stability. Appl Catal B Environ, 2020, 276: 119142.

[70] Liu MS, Wang LJ, Zhang L, et al. In-situ silica xerogel assisted facile synthesis of Fe–N–C catalysts with dense Fe-N _x active sites for efficient oxygen reduction. Small, 2022, 18(7): e2104934.

[71] Wu W, Wei YS, Chen HJ, et al. In-situ encapsulation of α-Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles into ZnFe₂O₄ micro-sized capsules as high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes. J Mater Sci Technol, 2021, 75: 110-117.

[72] Zhang CW, Song Y, Xu LB, et al. In situ encapsulation of Co/Co₃O₄ nanoparticles in nitrogen-doped hierarchically ordered porous carbon as high performance anode for lithium-ion batteries. Chem Eng J, 2020, 380: 122545.

[73] Xu XJ, Liu J, Liu ZB, et al. Robust pitaya-structured pyrite as high energy density cathode for high-rate lithium batteries. ACS Nano, 2017, 11(9): 9033-9040.

[74] Diouf B, Pode R Potential of lithium-ion batteries in renewable energy. Renew Energy, 2015, 76: 375-380.

[75] Fang R, Zhao S, Sun Z, et al. More reliable lithium–sulfur batteries: status, solutions and prospects. Adv Mater, 2017, 29(48): 1606823.

[76] Peng HJ, Huang JQ, Cheng XB, et al. Review on high-loading and high-energy lithium–sulfur batteries. Adv Energy Mater, 2017, 7(24): 1700260.

[77] Fan LL, Li ZH, Deng NP Recent advances in vanadium-based materials for aqueous metal ion batteries: design of morphology and crystal structure, evolution of mechanisms and electrochemical performance. Energy Storage Mater, 2021, 41: 152-182.

[78] Ye HL, Li YG Room-temperature metal–sulfur batteries: what can we learn from lithium–sulfur?. InfoMat, 2022, 4(5): e12291.

[79] Li L, Chang ZW, Zhang XB Recent progress on the development of metal-air batteries. Adv Sustain Syst, 2017, 1(10): 1700036.

[80] Roy BK, Tahmid I, Rashid TU Chitosan-based materials for supercapacitor applications: a review. J Mater Chem A, 2021, 9(33): 17592-17642.

[81] Armand M, Tarascon JM Building better batteries. Nature, 2008, 451(7179): 652-657.

[82] Tu HF, Li LG, Wang ZC, et al. Tailoring electrolyte solvation for LiF-rich solid electrolyte interphase toward a stable Li anode. ACS Nano, 2022, 16(10): 16898-16908.

[83] Denis S, Baudrin E, Touboul M, et al. Synthesis and electrochemical properties of amorphous vanadates of general formula RVO₄ (R = in, Cr, Fe, Al, Y) vs. Li J Electrochem Soc, 1997, 144(12): 4099-4109.

[84] Liu Z, Zhang S, Qiu ZP, et al. Tin nanodots derived from Sn²⁺/graphene quantum dot complex as Pillars into graphene blocks for ultrafast and ultrastable sodium-ion storage. Small, 2020, 16(38): e2003557.

[85] Peramunage D, Licht S A solid sulfur cathode for aqueous batteries. Science, 1993, 261(5124): 1029-1032.

[86] Yuan Z, Peng HJ, Hou TZ, et al. Powering lithium–sulfur battery performance by propelling polysulfide redox at sulfiphilic hosts. Nano Lett, 2016, 16(1): 519-527.

[87] Du XY, Zhang XL, Guo JL, et al. Hierarchical sulfur confinement by graphene oxide wrapped, walnut-like carbon spheres for cathode of Li–S battery. J Alloys Compd, 2017, 714: 311-317.

[88] Du J, Liu L, Yu YF, et al. N-doped ordered mesoporous carbon spheres derived by confined pyrolysis for high supercapacitor performance. J Mater Sci Technol, 2019, 35(10): 2178-2186.

[89] Du J, Zhang Y, Wu HX, et al. N-doped hollow mesoporous carbon spheres by improved dissolution-capture for supercapacitors. Carbon, 2020, 156: 523-528.

[90] Yu MH, Feng XL Thin-film electrode-based supercapacitors. Joule, 2019, 3(2): 338-360.

[91] Przygocki P, Abbas Q, Babuchowska P, et al. Confinement of iodides in carbon porosity to prevent from positive electrode oxidation in high voltage aqueous hybrid electrochemical capacitors. Carbon, 2017, 125: 391-400.

[92] Liu Q, Chen Z, Shabbir H, et al. Presentation of gas-phase-reactant-accessible single-rhodium-atom catalysts for CO oxidation, via MOF confinement of an Anderson polyoxometalate. J Mater Chem A, 2022, 10(35): 18226-18234.

[93] Yin XM, Han LY, Liu HM, et al. Recent progress in 1D nanostructures reinforced carbon/carbon composites. Adv Funct Mater, 2022, 32(35): 2204965.

[94] Sun H, Zhang Y, Zhang J, et al. Energy harvesting and storage in 1D devices. Nat Rev Mater, 2017, 2: 17023.

[95] Yang Q, Deng NP, Zhao YX, et al. A review on 1D materials for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries and all-solid-state lithium–sulfur batteries. Chem Eng J, 2023, 451: 138532.

[96] Zheng YJ, Dai WY, Zhang XQ, et al. Nanotube-based heterostructures for electrochemistry: a mini-review on lithium storage, hydrogen evolution and beyond. J Energy Chem, 2022, 70: 630-642.

[97] Shi CW, Owusu KA, Xu XM, et al. 1D carbon-based nanocomposites for electrochemical energy storage. Small, 2019, 15(48): e1902348.

[98] Gao XY, Zuo ZC, Wang F, et al. Controlling precise voids in the ion-selective carbon shell for zero-strain electrode. Energy Storage Mater, 2022, 45: 110-118.

[99] Xu TT, Shehzad MA, Wang X, et al. Engineering leaf-like UiO-66-SO₃H membranes for selective transport of cations. Nanomicro Lett, 2020, 12(1): 51.

[100] Mo RW, Tan XY, Li F, et al. Tin-graphene tubes as anodes for lithium-ion batteries with high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities. Nat Commun, 2020, 11(1): 1374.

[101] Vetter J, Novák P, Wagner MR, et al. Ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. J Power Sources, 2005, 147(1–2): 269-281.

[102] Zhu SH, Lian XY, Fan TT, et al. Thermally stable core-shell Ni/nanorod-CeO₂@SiO₂ catalyst for partial oxidation of methane at high temperatures. Nanoscale, 2018, 10(29): 14031-14038.

[103] Wan C, Cheng DG, Chen FQ, et al. Fabrication of CeO₂ nanotube supported Pt catalyst encapsulated with silica for high and stable performance. Chem Commun (Camb), 2015, 51(48): 9785-9788.

[104] Wang YJ, Wu H, Liu ZF, et al. Tailoring sandwich-like CNT@MnO@N-doped carbon hetero-nanotubes as advanced anodes for boosting lithium storage. Electrochim Acta, 2019, 304: 158-167.

[105] Zhang CL, Li H, Zhang Q, et al. Core–shell structured porous carbon nanofibers integrated with ultra-small SnO₂ nanocrystals for fast and stable lithium storage. Chem Eng J, 2021, 420: 127705.

[106] Feng YQ, Liu H One-step for in situ etching and reduction to construct oxygen vacancy modified MoO₂/reduced graphene oxide nanotubes for high performance lithium-ion batteries. Appl Surf Sci, 2021, 538: 147992.

[107] Jin XZ, Huang H, Wu AM, et al. Inverse capacity growth and pocket effect in SnS₂ semifilled carbon nanotube anode. ACS Nano, 2018, 12(8): 8037-8047.

[108] Liu X, Wu MH, Li MR, et al. Facile encapsulation of nanosized SnO₂ particles in carbon nanotubes as an efficient anode of Li-ion batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2013, 1(33): 9527.

[109] Ng B, Peng X, Faegh E, et al. Using nanoconfinement to inhibit the degradation pathways of conversion-metal oxide anodes for highly stable fast-charging Li-ion batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2020, 8(5): 2712-2727.

[110] Yu WJ, Liu C, Hou PX, et al. Lithiation of silicon nanoparticles confined in carbon nanotubes. ACS Nano, 2015, 9(5): 5063-5071.

[111] Jiang H, Hu YJ, Guo SJ, et al. Rational design of MnO/carbon nanopeapods with internal void space for high-rate and long-life li-ion batteries. ACS Nano, 2014, 8(6): 6038-6046.

[112] Cai ZY, Xu L, Yan MY, et al. Manganese oxide/carbon yolk-shell nanorod anodes for high capacity lithium batteries. Nano Lett, 2015, 15(1): 738-744.

[113] Gao G, Zhang Q, Cheng XB, et al. Ultrafine ferroferric oxide nanoparticles embedded into mesoporous carbon nanotubes for lithium ion batteries. Sci Rep, 2015, 5: 17553.

[114] Hu RZ, Sun W, Liu H, et al. The fast filling of nano-SnO₂ in CNTs by vacuum absorption: a new approach to realize cyclic durable anodes for lithium ion batteries. Nanoscale, 2013, 5(23): 11971-11979.

[115] Tabassum H, Zou R, Mahmood A, et al. A universal strategy for hollow metal oxide nanoparticles encapsulated into B/N co-doped graphitic nanotubes as high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes. Adv Mater, 2018, 30(8): 1705441.

[116] Yu HF, Xu L, Wang HY, et al. Nanochannel-confined synthesis of Nb₂O₅/CNTs nanopeapods for ultrastable lithium storage. Electrochim Acta, 2019, 295: 829-834.

[117] Liu Y, Chen L, Jiang H, et al. Confined synthesis of SnO₂ nanoparticles encapsulated in carbon nanotubes for high-rate and stable lithium-ion batteries. J Electron Mater, 2022, 51: 6637-6644.

[118] Zhou XS, Yu L, Yu XY, et al. Encapsulating Sn nanoparticles in amorphous carbon nanotubes for enhanced lithium storage properties. Adv Energy Mater, 2016, 6(22): 1601177.

[119] Li PX, Guo X, Zang R, et al. Nanoconfined SnO₂/SnSe₂ heterostructures in N-doped carbon nanotubes for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. Chem Eng J, 2021, 418: 129501.

[120] Xu YS, Duan SY, Sun YG, et al. Recent developments in electrode materials for potassium-ion batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2019, 7(9): 4334-4352.

[121] Jordan JW, Cameron JM, Lowe GA, et al. Stabilization of polyoxometalate charge carriers via redox-driven nanoconfinement in single-walled carbon nanotubes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 2022, 61(8): e202115619.

[122] Xu XM, Niu CJ, Duan MY, et al. Alkaline earth metal vanadates as sodium-ion battery anodes. Nat Commun, 2017, 8(1): 460.

[123] Gebert F, Knott J, Gorkin R III, et al. Polymer electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater, 2021, 36: 10-30.

[124] Zhao SQ, Guo ZQ, Yang J, et al. Nanoengineering of advanced carbon materials for sodium-ion batteries. Small, 2021, 17(48): e2007431.

[125] Guo SH, Sun Y, Liu P, et al. Cation-mixing stabilized layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. Sci Bull, 2018, 63(6): 376-384.

[126] Xie FX, Zhang L, Ye C, et al. The application of hollow structured anodes for sodium-ion batteries: from simple to complex systems. Adv Mater, 2019, 31(38): e1800492.

[127] Pramudita JC, Sehrawat D, Goonetilleke D, et al. An initial review of the status of electrode materials for potassium-ion batteries. Adv Energy Mater, 2017, 7(24): 1602911.

[128] Liu ZW, Su H, Yang YB, et al. Advances and perspectives on transitional metal layered oxides for potassium-ion battery. Energy Storage Mater, 2021, 34: 211-228.

[129] Wu XY, Qiu S, Liu Y, et al. The quest for stable potassium-ion battery chemistry. Adv Mater, 2022, 34(5): e2106876.

[130] Sui XY, Huang XK, Pu HH, et al. Tailoring MOF-derived porous carbon nanorods confined red phosphorous for superior potassium-ion storage. Nano Energy, 2021, 83: 105797.

[131] Jordan JW, Lowe GA, McSweeney RL, et al. Host-guest hybrid redox materials self-assembled from polyoxometalates and single-walled carbon nanotubes. Adv Mater, 2019, 31(41): 1904182.

[132] Chen J, Xu WL, Wang HY, et al. Emerging two-dimensional nanostructured manganese-based materials for electrochemical energy storage: recent advances, mechanisms, challenges, and prospects. J Mater Chem A, 2022, 10(40): 21197-21250.

[133] Xu WL, Zhao X, Zhan FY, et al. Toward emerging two-dimensional nickel-based materials for electrochemical energy storage: progress and perspectives. Energy Storage Mater, 2022, 53: 79-135.

[134] Yu T, Yang HC, Cheng HM, et al. Theoretical progress of 2D six-membered-ring inorganic materials as anodes for non-lithium-ion batteries. Small, 2022, 18(43): e2107868.

[135] Zheng C, Yao Y, Rui XH, et al. Functional MXene-based materials for next-generation rechargeable batteries. Adv Mater, 2022

[136] Venkateshalu S, Shariq M, Chaudhari NK, et al. 2D non-carbide MXenes: an emerging material class for energy storage and conversion. J Mater Chem A, 2022, 10(38): 20174-20189.

[137] Xu JS, You JH, Wang L, et al. MXenes serving aqueous supercapacitors: preparation, energy storage mechanism and electrochemical performance enhancement. Sustain Mater Technol, 2022, 33: e00490.

[138] Tu SB, Lu ZH, Zheng MT, et al. Single-layer-particle electrode design for practical fast-charging lithium-ion batteries. Adv Mater, 2022, 34(39): e2202892.

[139] Kong Y, Luo Y, Ma J, et al. Pomegranate clusters of N-doped carbon-coated CoO _x supported on graphene as a flexible lithium-ion battery anode. ACS Appl Energy Mater, 2022, 5(4): 5010-5017.

[140] Zhang ZH, Ying HJ, Huang PF, et al. Porous Si decorated on MXene as free-standing anodes for lithium-ion batteries with enhanced diffusion properties and mechanical stability. Chem Eng J, 2023, 451: 138785.

[141] Zhao MQ, Xie X, Ren CE, et al. Hollow MXene spheres and 3D macroporous MXene frameworks for Na-ion storage. Adv Mater, 2017, 29(37): 1702410.

[142] Mao K, Shi JJ, Zhang QX, et al. High-capacitance MXene anode based on Zn-ion pre-intercalation strategy for degradable micro Zn-ion hybrid supercapacitors. Nano Energy, 2022, 103: 107791.

[143] Xiao XH, Deng XL, Tian Y, et al. Ultrathin two-dimensional nanosheet metal-organic frameworks with high-density ligand active sites for advanced lithium-ion capacitors. Nano Energy, 2022, 103: 107797.

[144] Liu WM, Jiang MM, Zhang FZ, et al. Confined self-assembly of SiOC nanospheres in graphene film to achieve cycle stability of lithium ion batteries. New J Chem, 2022, 46(14): 6519-6527.

[145] Wu ZY, Zhu S, Bai XR, et al. One-step in situ synthesis of Sn-nanoconfined Ti₃C₂T _x MXene composites for Li-ion battery anode. Electrochim Acta, 2022, 407: 139916.

[146] Chen L, Ma K, Zhou LL, et al. Confining ultrafine SnS₂ nanoparticles into MXene interlayer toward fast and stable lithium storage. Chem Eng Sci, 2022, 247: 117087.

[147] Zuo DC, Song SC, An CS, et al. Synthesis of sandwich-like structured Sn/SnO _x@MXene composite through in situ growth for highly reversible lithium storage. Nano Energy, 2019, 62: 401-409.

[148] da Xu MK, Chen L, et al. MXene interlayer anchored Fe₃O₄ nanocrystals for ultrafast Li-ion batteries. Chem Eng Sci, 2020, 212.

[149] Zhang J, Yang ZX, Qiu J, et al. Design and synthesis of nitrogen and sulfur co-doped porous carbon via two-dimensional interlayer confinement for a high-performance anode material for lithium-ion batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2016, 4(16): 5802-5809.

[150] Qin Y, Ou ZH, Xu CL, et al. Highly accessible single Mn-N3 sites-enriched porous graphene structure via a confined thermal-erosion strategy for catalysis of oxygen reduction. Chem Eng J, 2022, 440: 135850.

[151] Wang H, Song XL, Lv M, et al. Interfacial covalent bonding endowing Ti₃C₂–Sb₂S₃ composites high sodium storage performance. Small, 2022, 18(3): e2104293.

[152] Yuan ZX, Guo HN, Huang YK, et al. Composites of NiSe₂@C hollow nanospheres wrapped with Ti₃C₂T _x MXene for synergistic enhanced sodium storage. Chem Eng J, 2022, 429: 132394.

[153] Huang X, Tang JY, Luo B, et al. Sandwich-like ultrathin TiS₂ nanosheets confined within N, S codoped porous carbon as an effective polysulfide promoter in lithium–sulfur batteries. Adv Energy Mater, 2019, 9(32): 1901872.

[154] Zeng C, Xie FX, Yang XF, et al. Ultrathin titanate nanosheets/graphene films derived from confined transformation for excellent Na/K ion storage. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 2018, 57(28): 8540-8544.

[155] Service RF Lithium–sulfur batteries poised for leap. Science, 2018, 359(6380): 1080-1081.

[156] Zhou L, Danilov DL, Qiao F, et al. Sulfur reduction reaction in lithium–sulfur batteries: mechanisms, catalysts, and characterization. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12: 2202094.

[157] Feng S, Liu J, Zhang XH, et al. Rationalizing nitrogen-doped secondary carbon particles for practical lithium–sulfur batteries. Nano Energy, 2022, 103: 107794.

[158] Guo N, Huo WJ, Dong XY, et al. A review on 3D zinc anodes for zinc ion batteries. Small Methods, 2022, 6(9): e2200597.

[159] Zhang CW, Wang QY, Song Y, et al. 3D ordered hierarchically porous carbon derived from colloidal crystal templates towards alkali metal-ion batteries. Carbon, 2023, 201: 76-99.

[160] Xue P, Zhu KP, Gong WB, et al. “One stone two birds” design for dual-functional TiO₂-TiN heterostructures enabled dendrite-free and kinetics-enhanced lithium–sulfur batteries. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12(18): 2200308.

[161] Wen B, Yang C, Wu J, et al. Water-induced 3D MgMn₂O₄ assisted by unique nanofluidic effect for energy-dense and durable aqueous magnesium-ion batteries. Chem Eng J, 2022, 435: 134997.

[162] Zhao WM, Zhang W, Lei YX, et al. Dual-type carbon confinement strategy: improving the stability of CoTe₂ nanocrystals for sodium-ion batteries with a long lifespan. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2022, 14(5): 6801-6809.

[163] Zhang L, Wang CR, Dou YH, et al. A yolk–shell structured silicon anode with superior conductivity and high tap density for full lithium-ion batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 2019, 58(26): 8824-8828.

[164] Zhang L, Huang QW, Liao XZ, et al. Scalable and controllable fabrication of CNTs improved yolk–shelled Si anodes with advanced in operando mechanical quantification. Energy Environ Sci, 2021, 14(6): 3502-3509.

[165] Gueon D, Kang DY, Kim JS, et al. Si nanoparticles-nested inverse opal carbon supports for highly stable lithium-ion battery anodes. J Mater Chem A, 2015, 3(47): 23684-23689.

[166] Xiao JJ, Cai ZH, Muhmood T, et al. Tailoring ordered porous carbon embedded with Cu clusters for high-energy and long-lasting phosphorus anode. Small, 2022, 18(11): e2106930.

[167] Wang XL, Li G, Hassan FM, et al. Building sponge-like robust architectures of CNT–graphene–Si composites with enhanced rate and cycling performance for lithium-ion batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2015, 3(7): 3962-3967.

[168] Liu Y, Chen ZL, Jia HX, et al. Iron-doping-induced phase transformation in dual-carbon-confined cobalt diselenide enabling superior lithium storage. ACS Nano, 2019, 13(5): 6113-6124.

[169] Liu N, Lu ZD, Zhao J, et al. A pomegranate-inspired nanoscale design for large-volume-change lithium battery anodes. Nat Nanotechnol, 2014, 9(3): 187-192.

[170] Zhang HW, Huang XD, Noonan O, et al. Tailored yolk-shell Sn@C nanoboxes for high-performance lithium storage. Adv Funct Mater, 2017, 27(8): 1606023.

[171] Guo SC, Hu X, Hou Y, et al. Tunable synthesis of yolk-shell porous Silicon@Carbon for optimizing Si/C-based anode of lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2017, 9(48): 42084-42092.

[172] Deng ZN, Jiang H, Hu YJ, et al. Nanospace-confined synthesis of coconut-like SnS/C nanospheres for high-rate and stable lithium-ion batteries. AICHE J, 2018, 64(6): 1965-1974.

[173] Su JM, Zhao JY, Li LY, et al. Three-dimensional porous Si and SiO₂ with in situ decorated carbon nanotubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2017, 9(21): 17807-17813.

[174] Xiao J, Han JW, Kong DB, et al. “Nano-spring” confined in a shrinkable graphene cage towards self-adaptable high-capacity anodes. Energy Storage Mater, 2022, 50: 554-562.

[175] Zhang XE, Ren HJ, Xie B, et al. MoX2 (X = O, S) hierarchical nanosheets confined in carbon frameworks for enhanced lithium-ion storage. ACS Appl Nano Mater, 2021, 4(5): 4615-4622.

[176] Cao BK, Liu ZQ, Xu CY, et al. High-rate-induced capacity evolution of mesoporous C@SnO₂@C hollow nanospheres for ultra-long cycle lithium-ion batteries. J Power Sources, 2019, 414: 233-241.

[177] Liu Y, Li P, Wang YW, et al. A green and template recyclable approach to prepare Fe₃O₄/porous carbon from petroleum asphalt for lithium-ion batteries. J Alloys Compd, 2017, 695: 2612-2618.

[178] Li P, Liu JY, Liu Y, et al. Three-dimensional ZnMn₂O₄/porous carbon framework from petroleum asphalt for high performance lithium-ion battery. Electrochim Acta, 2015, 180: 164-172.

[179] Wei DH, Wu YL, Nie Y, et al. Engineering red phosphorus confined in TiO₂-coated ultrathin carbon-bubble foam with enhanced Li⁺ storage capability. Appl Surf Sci, 2020, 529: 147114.

[180] Meng T, Zeng RH, Sun ZQ, et al. Chitosan-confined synthesis of N-doped and carbon-coated Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ nanoparticles with enhanced lithium storage for lithium-ion batteries. J Electrochem Soc, 2018, 165(5): A1046-A1053.

[181] Wu XY, Qian C, Zhang XE, et al. Ultrasmall SnO₂ nanocrystals with adjustable density embedded in N-doped hollow mesoporous carbon spheres as anode for Li⁺/Na⁺ batteries. J Mater Sci, 2020, 55(29): 14464-14476.

[182] Wang K, Li NN, Xie JY, et al. Dual confinement of carbon/TiO₂ hollow shells enables improved lithium storage of Si nanoparticles. Electrochim Acta, 2021, 372: 137863.

[183] Jung SM, Kim DW, Jung HY Unconventional capacity increase kinetics of a chemically engineered SnO₂ aerogel anode for long-term stable lithium-ion batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2020, 8(17): 8244-8254.

[184] Zhang XE, Shen C, Wu HY, et al. Filling few-layer ReS₂ in hollow mesoporous carbon spheres for boosted lithium/sodium storage properties. Energy Storage Mater, 2020, 26: 457-464.

[185] Yu J, Zhang JL, Zhang YY, et al. Electrostatic adsorption facilitating dual-layer coating for stabilized cathode-electrolyte interphases and boosted lithium intercalation thereof in LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ cathode. Appl Surf Sci, 2022, 577: 151716.

[186] Zhao LY, Yu J, Xing CT, et al. Nanopore confined anthraquinone in MOF-derived N-doped microporous carbon as stable organic cathode for lithium-ion battery. Energy Storage Mater, 2019, 22: 433-440.

[187] Sui D, Xu LQ, Zhang HT, et al. A 3D cross-linked graphene-based honeycomb carbon composite with excellent confinement effect of organic cathode material for lithium-ion batteries. Carbon, 2020, 157: 656-662.

[188] Zheng ZM, Zao Y, Zhang QB, et al. Robust erythrocyte-like Fe₂O₃@carbon with yolk-shell structures as high-performance anode for lithium ion batteries. Chem Eng J, 2018, 347: 563-573.

[189] Yan B, Li Y, Gao L, et al. Confining ZnS/SnS₂ ultrathin heterostructured nanosheets in hollow N-doped carbon nanocubes as novel sulfur host for advanced Li-S batteries. Small, 2022, 18(24): e2107727.

[190] Wang JM, Wang BB, Sun HM, et al. Heterogeneous interface containing selenium vacancies space-confined in double carbon to induce superior electronic/ionic transport dynamics for sodium/potassium-ion half/full batteries. Energy Storage Mater, 2022, 46: 394-405.

[191] Cheng Q, Liu XZ, Deng Q, et al. Heterostructured Ni₃S₄/Co₉S₈ encapsulated in nitrogen-doped carbon nanocubes for advanced potassium storage. Chem Eng J, 2022, 446: 136829.

[192] Yao L, Gu QF, Yu XB Three-dimensional MOFs@MXene aerogel composite derived MXene threaded hollow carbon confined CoS nanoparticles toward advanced alkali-ion batteries. ACS Nano, 2021, 15(2): 3228-3240.

[193] Liu ZZ, Wang J, Bi R, et al. Ultrasmall NiS₂ nanocrystals embedded in ordered macroporous graphenic carbon matrix for efficiently pseudocapacitive sodium storage. Trans Tianjin Univ, 2022

[194] Liang S, Zou LC, Zheng LJ, et al. Highly stable co single atom confined in hierarchical carbon molecular sieve as efficient electrocatalysts in metal-air batteries. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12(11): 2103097.

[195] Wang LQ, Han ZL, Zhao QQ, et al. Engineering yolk–shell P-doped NiS₂/C spheres via a MOF-template for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2020, 8(17): 8612-8619.

[196] Ma K, Dong YR, Jiang H, et al. Densified MoS₂/Ti₃C₂ films with balanced porosity for ultrahigh volumetric capacity sodium-ion battery. Chem Eng J, 2021, 413: 127479.

[197] Cao DW, Sha Q, Wang JX, et al. Advanced anode materials for sodium-ion batteries: confining polyoxometalates in flexible metal-organic frameworks by the “breathing effect”. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2022, 14(19): 22186-22196.

[198] Dong XF, Chen FJ, Chen GG, et al. NiS₂ nanodots on N, S-doped graphene synthesized via interlayer confinement for enhanced lithium-/sodium-ion storage. J Colloid Interface Sci, 2022, 619: 359-368.

[199] Huang S, Ye MH, Zhang YF, et al. Ultrahigh rate and ultralong life span sodium storage of FePS₃ enabled by the space confinement effect of layered expanded graphite. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021, 13(46): 55254-55262.

[200] Dong XS, Zhao RZ, Sun B, et al. Confining homogeneous Ni_0.5Co_0.5Se₂ nanoparticles in Ti₃C₂T _x MXene architectures for enhanced sodium storage performance. Appl Surf Sci, 2022, 605: 154847.

[201] Lin J, Shi YH, Li YF, et al. Confined MoS₂ growth in a unique composite matrix for ultra-stable and high-rate lithium/sodium-ion anodes. Chem Eng J, 2022, 428: 131103.

[202] Patra J, Rath PC, Yang CH, et al. Three-dimensional interpenetrating mesoporous carbon confining SnO₂ particles for superior sodiation/desodiation properties. Nanoscale, 2017, 9(25): 8674-8683.

[203] Kang C, Zhou SP, Liu JL, et al. Confining Sb nanoparticles in bamboo-like hierarchical porous aligned carbon nanotubes for use as an anode for sodium ion batteries with ultralong cycling performance. J Mater Chem A, 2021, 9(4): 2152-2160.

[204] Wang MS, Xu H, Yang ZL, et al. SnS nanosheets confined growth by S and N codoped graphene with enhanced pseudocapacitance for sodium-ion capacitors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2019, 11(44): 41363-41373.

[205] Yu DD, Li QH, Zhang W, et al. Amorphous tellurium-embedded hierarchical porous carbon nanofibers as high-rate and long-life electrodes for potassium-ion batteries. Small, 2022, 18(32): 2202750.

[206] Yang SH, Park SK, Kang YC MOF-derived CoSe₂@N-doped carbon matrix confined in hollow mesoporous carbon nanospheres as high-performance anodes for potassium-ion batteries. Nanomicro Lett, 2020, 13(1): 9.

[207] Du LY, Wu Q, Yang LJ, et al. Efficient synergism of electrocatalysis and physical confinement leading to durable high-power lithium–sulfur batteries. Nano Energy, 2019, 57: 34-40.

[208] Yang DH, Zhou HY, Liu H, et al. Hollow N-doped carbon polyhedrons with hierarchically porous shell for confinement of polysulfides in lithium–sulfur batteries. iScience, 2019, 13: 243-253.

[209] Zhang H, Zhao ZB, Hou YN, et al. Nanopore-confined g-C₃N₄ nanodots in N, S co-doped hollow porous carbon with boosted capacity for lithium–sulfur batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2018, 6(16): 7133-7141.

[210] Qi WT, Jiang W, Xu F, et al. Improving confinement and redox kinetics of polysufides through hollow NC@CeO₂ nanospheres for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Chem Eng J, 2020, 382.

[211] Cai D, Wang LL, Li L, et al. Self-assembled CdS quantum dots in carbon nanotubes: induced polysulfide trapping and redox kinetics enhancement for improved lithium–sulfur battery performance. J Mater Chem A, 2019, 7(2): 806-815.

[212] Liu Y, Yan WJ, Zhang W, et al. 2D sandwich-like α-zirconium phosphate/polypyrrole: moderate catalytic activity and true sulfur confinement for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Chemsuschem, 2019, 12(23): 5172-5182.

[213] Mi YY, Liu W, Wang Q, et al. A pomegranate-structured sulfur cathode material with triple confinement of lithium polysulfides for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2017, 5(23): 11788-11793.

[214] Huang C, Zhou Y, Shu HB, et al. Synergetic restriction to polysulfides by hollow FePO₄ nanospheres wrapped by reduced graphene oxide for lithium–sulfur battery. Electrochim Acta, 2020, 329: 135135.

[215] Meng RJ, Deng QY, Peng CX, et al. Two-dimensional organic–inorganic heterostructures of in situ-grown layered COF on Ti₃C₂ MXene nanosheets for lithium–sulfur batteries. Nano Today, 2020, 35: 100991.

[216] Qi WT, Jiang W, Ling R, et al. Highly active CeO_{2– x}/Fe interfaces enable fast redox conversion of polysulfides for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Electrochim Acta, 2022, 419: 140402.

[217] Yang DW, Zhang CQ, Biendicho JJ, et al. ZnSe/N-doped carbon nanoreactor with multiple adsorption sites for stable lithium–sulfur batteries. ACS Nano, 2020, 14(11): 15492-15504.

[218] Shi TY, Zhao CY, Yin C, et al. Incorporation ZnS quantum dots into carbon nanotubes for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Nanotechnology, 2020, 31(49): 495406.

[219] Wu YY, Ye CC, Yu L, et al. Soft template-directed interlayer confinement synthesis of a Fe–Co dual single-atom catalyst for Zn–air batteries. Energy Storage Mater, 2022, 45: 805-813.

[220] Zhang Z, Deng YP, Xing ZY, et al. “Ship in a bottle” design of highly efficient bifunctional electrocatalysts for long-lasting rechargeable Zn–air batteries. ACS Nano, 2019, 13(6): 7062-7072.

[221] Chen DK, Ji JP, Jiang ZQ, et al. Molecular-confinement synthesis of sub-nano Fe/N/C catalysts with high oxygen reduction reaction activity and excellent durability for rechargeable Zn–Air batteries. J Power Sources, 2020, 450: 227660.

[222] Tan YY, Zhu WB, Zhang ZY, et al. Electronic tuning of confined sub-nanometer cobalt oxide clusters boosting oxygen catalysis and rechargeable Zn–air batteries. Nano Energy, 2021, 83: 105813.

[223] Liu XH, Zhang YW, Zhao ZY, et al. Highly exposed discrete Co atoms anchored in ultrathin porous N, P-codoped carbon nanosheets for efficient oxygen electrocatalysis and rechargeable aqueous/solid-state Zn–air batteries. J Mater Chem A, 2021, 9(39): 22643-22652.

[224] Wang QC, Ye K, Xu L, et al. Carbon nanotube-encapsulated cobalt for oxygen reduction: integration of space confinement and N-doping. Chem Commun (Camb), 2019, 55(98): 14801-14804.

[225] Hu YZ, Lu Y, Zhao XR, et al. Highly active N-doped carbon encapsulated Pd–Fe intermetallic nanoparticles for the oxygen reduction reaction. Nano Res, 2020, 13(9): 2365-2370.

[226] Wang B, Xu L, Liu GP, et al. In situ confinement growth of peasecod-like N-doped carbon nanotubes encapsulate bimetallic FeCu alloy as a bifunctional oxygen reaction cathode electrocatalyst for sustainable energy batteries. J Alloys Compd, 2020, 826: 154152.

[227] Zhao X, Wang J, Wang JM, et al. Atomically dispersed quintuple nitrogen and oxygen co-coordinated zirconium on graphene-type substrate for highly efficient oxygen reduction reaction. Cell Rep Phys Sci, 2022, 3(3): 100773.

[228] Zong LB, Chen X, Dou SM, et al. Stable confinement of Fe/Fe₃C in Fe, N-codoped carbon nanotube towards robust zinc-air batteries. Chin Chem Lett, 2021, 32(3): 1121-1126.

[229] Song X, Guo L, Liao X, et al. Hollow carbon nanopolyhedra for enhanced electrocatalysis via confined hierarchical porosity. Small, 2017, 13(23): 1700238.

[230] Wang HY, Jiao YK, Wang SJ, et al. Accelerating triple transport in zinc-air batteries and water electrolysis by spatially confining co nanoparticles in breathable honeycomb-like macroporous N-doped carbon. Small, 2021, 17(49): e2103517.

[231] Wang W, Liu YC, Li J, et al. NiFe LDH nanodots anchored on 3D macro/mesoporous carbon as a high-performance ORR/OER bifunctional electrocatalyst. J Mater Chem A, 2018, 6(29): 14299-14306.

[232] Wu LM, Ni BX, Chen R, et al. A general approach for hierarchically porous metal/N/C nanosphere electrocatalysts: nano-confined pyrolysis of in situ-formed amorphous metal–ligand complexes. J Mater Chem A, 2020, 8(40): 21026-21035.

[233] Xiong WF, Li HF, You HH, et al. Encapsulating metal organic framework into hollow mesoporous carbon sphere as efficient oxygen bifunctional electrocatalyst. Natl Sci Rev, 2020, 7(3): 609-619.

[234] Xing T, Sun MQ, Guo SY, et al. Smart confinement of MnO enabling highly reversible Mn(II)/Mn(III) redox for asymmetric supercapacitors. J Power Sources, 2021, 495: 229801.

[235] Zhou XP, Meng T, Yi FY, et al. Supramolecular-induced confining methylene blue in three-dimensional reduced graphene oxide for high-performance supercapacitors. J Power Sources, 2020, 475: 228554.

[236] Lin JH, Chen H, Shuai MM, et al. Facile synthesis of the 3D interconnecting petal-like NiCoO₂/C composite as high-performance supercapacitor electrode materials. Mater Today Nano, 2019, 7: 100046.