Research on Time-Division Multiplexing Planning and Design Strategies for Parking Lots Under the Theory of Compact Cities

Abstract

In compact cities, one of the main challenges is the competition for limited urban land resources between people and vehicles, where shared parking infrastructure may offer a potential solution. Building on existing literature, this study presents a technical framework for the time-division multiplexing strategy of transportation infrastructure, and explores its application in an old central urban area in China as a case study. This strategy includes three main steps: supply and demand identification, planning and design, and community promotion. Firstly, from macro to micro scales, identify characteristics of parking lots' usage rates and the public activity demands based on mobile signaling data and field survey results. Secondly, develop the time-division multiplexing rules for parking lots according to the above characteristics and detailed spatial planning and design schemes. Finally, design an interactive model that can provide the public's real-time feedback to ensure effective implementation of the schemes by guiding public behavior. Grounded in compact city theories, this approach extends spatial land use limitations by introducing a temporal dimension. By blending big data coverage with field surveys and interviews, and integrating planning and design with public participation, this study offers an effective solution to urban conflicts between people and vehicles.

● Focuses on time-division multiplexing strategies to address people and vehicle conflict by optimizing the use of limited space over time

● Develops a three-step time-division multiplexing strategy for parking lots, including supply and demand identification, planning and design, and community promotion

● Identifies the spatiotemporal characteristics of residents' activity demands and parking needs with mobile signaling data and field survey results

● Proposes a mixed-function design method based on the characteristics of parking lot usage rate

● Highlights the features and advantages of interactive models in promoting these rules to the public

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Time-Division Multiplexing / Parking Lots / Digital Empowerment / Mobile Signaling / Planning and Design / Public Participation

1 Introduction

1.1 Land Use Conflict Between People and Vehicles in Compact Cities

Compact city is an urban planning strategy aimed at promoting environmental, economic, and social sustainability through spatial configurations featured with relatively high density and mixed land use.^[1][2] However, the dense spatial layout exacerbates the competition between people and vehicles for limited urban land resources, a contradiction that has not been alleviated by advocating for prioritizing the development of public transportation. In fact, the experience of developed countries suggest that the growth in car ownership and dependence on cars are difficult to mitigate through the development of public transportation^[2], as car travel has the irreplaceable advantage of flexibility^[3]. Meanwhile, the continuous growth in car ownership forces cities to construct more static transportation facilities such as parking lots^[4], squeezing the activity spaces of residents and consequently giving rise to a series of efficiency and equity issues. For instance, a limited number of concentrated urban parks are insufficient to meet the widespread demand among citizens for open spaces^[1][5]~[7], while the uneven distribution of service facilities also affects the realization of social equity^[8]. Thus, the conflict between people and vehicles in compact cities is increasingly prominent and urgently needs to be addressed.

1.2 Time-division Multiplexing as a Mixed Land Use Strategy

Time-division multiplexing (TDM), originally a term from the field of information and communication engineering, refers to the technique of transmitting multiple signals over the same communication channel in different time slots^[9]. Compared to allocating multiple channel spaces, the TDM strategy saves valuable channel resources by finely planning the same channel in the time dimension. This concept provides inspiration for spatial utilization in compact cities. Traditional mixed land-use strategies (including horizontal mix within streets or communities, and vertical mix within individual buildings) focus on the space itself^[10]. However, spaces nowadays can accommodate a variety of daily activities due to their increasing fluidity^[11]. Therefore, based on the TDM concept, planning and design that considers the varying time distribution of different activities might be conducive to the mixed use of urban spaces.

In fact, the utilization of land resources for parking infrastructure in a TDM way has been a widespread spontaneous phenomenon to some extent. For instance, Eran Ben-Joseph et al. found that parking lots in American cities often host spontaneous activities such as ball games, concerts, and camping^[12]. The PARK(ing) Day event, initiated by the Rebar Art and Design Studio globally, temporarily converts street parking spaces into small parks to advocate for more public open spaces^[12][13]. Scholars have also conducted planning strategy studies on idle parking lots, including the combined function design of parking spaces^[14] and multifunctional planning of parking spaces under elevated highways^[15]. With the development of sharing economy, the TDM-based land use has become a planning strategy that embodies social equity and maximizes resource utilization, enabling more stakeholders to benefit from limited land resources.^[16][17]

1.3 Literature Review and Research Question Definition

Although scholars have explored the multifunctional and composite use of compact urban spaces in the temporal dimension, most existing studies are limited to qualitative descriptions of phenomena and specific spatial designs. They often overlook the preliminary supply and demand identification and subsequent implementation management, and thus have yet to develop a systematic technical pathway for TDM planning and design of spaces.

Firstly, existing literature on the TDM planning and design of parking lots generally does not explore how to effectively identify potential parking spaces that can accommodate public activities. In recent years, technological development such as mobile positioning has facilitated the precise detection of dynamic geographical characteristics of urban populations and vehicles, providing technical support for discovering such spaces^[18]. On the one hand, geospatial big data can record and identify the spatiotemporal patterns of human activities based on the relationship between activities and the environment^[19]~[22]. On the other hand, advancements in sensor systems enable fundamental improvement of methods in assessing and monitoring infrastructure status^[23]. Thanks to the deployment of the Internet of Things and large-scale urban sensor networks, individuals with smartphones have become "sensors" of urban dynamics^[11]. Urban planners and designers can identify the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of people and vehicles through mobile signaling data, thereby discovering urban spaces with TDM potential.

Secondly, some literature proposes specific design methods for multifunctional mixed-use parking lots. For instance, Ben-Joseph suggested meeting public activity needs by installing basketball hoops, setting up temporary stages, and adding movable chairs^[12]; Yanhong Hu proposed to generate design plans of multifunctional parking lots considering the correlation between the parking function and other functions (such as car charging, car grooming, and commercial leisure)^[14]. However, these solutions are limited to the spaces themselves and lack resonance with the broader urban spatial structure. To better achieve the TDM planning and design of parking lots at the urban scale, planners should consider both the usage situation of parking lots and the recreational demand of residents, ensuring a practical match between spatial supply and demand.

Thirdly, TDM planning and design essentially depends on the concept of sharing and spatiotemporal characteristics of user behavior^[16]. Its successful implementation ultimately relies on the self-management of urban residents, for which it is necessary to introduce appropriate public participation to avoid purely top-down technical logic. Research indicates that interactive forms of public participation (with interactive models, workshops^[24]) are more effective, where gamified approaches to participation are gradually becoming an important concept. Games are not just for entertainment, but with clear educational purposes that can encourage user engagement and promote the planning process^[25]. Therefore, interactive and gamified forms of public participation can effectively support the implementation of TDM planning and design strategies.

Thus, to provide references for the TDM planning and design of parking lots in compact cities, this study aims to address the following questions: How to identify urban spaces with TDM potential and determine potential demand? How to achieve it through detailed design of spaces? And, how to ensure effective implementation of the planning and design scheme with gamified public participation?

2 Conceptual Framework for TDM Planning and Design of Urban Parking Space

The TDM planning and design strategies for urban spaces need to comprehensively consider the usage demands of different groups at different time frames, requiring both technical expertise and practical logic. The conceptual framework proposed in this study comprises three stages of supply and demand identification, planning and design, and community engagement. The key steps include identifying idle parking spaces and potential public activity needs, designing spaces tailored to specific activity needs, and increasing public acceptance through promotion (Fig.1).

Fig.1 Technical roadmap.

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Firstly, in the stage of supply and demand identification, utilize spatiotemporal big data such as mobile signaling to characterize changes of the overall population flow in urban spaces. This can help identify areas with significant variations in the flow and assess the vacancy status of parking spaces. Simultaneously, analyze the coverage area of urban public space services with AOI (Area of Interest) and POI (Point of Interest) data that can represent urban functions. By combining the idle time and spatial distribution characteristics of parking spaces with the service range of existing public spaces, areas where the TDM planning and design of parking lots can meet public activity needs will be identified. Subsequently, micro-scale field surveys can be conducted to further confirm the specific vacancy status of potential parking lots and the activity needs of the corresponding population. Secondly, in the planning and design stage, specific planning and design are carried out for potential parking lots based on the above results. Through approaches such as spatial transformation, installation of activity facilities, and signage design, attractive multifunctional usage scenes will be created. In the last stage, TDM rules formed in the design proposal will be converted into interactive models, basing on site conditions. Corresponding interactive scenes are designed for proposal promotion and application within the community.

In summary, the conceptual framework utilizes digital technology to identify the objects of planning and design, while promoting the implementation of the plan through public participation and interaction. This forms a systematic planning strategy for the TDM design of parking lots.

3 Case Study

This study focuses on a high-density built environment in the central urban area of a city in China. The region, characterized by its long-established development, dense buildings, and high population, is part of the old central urban area, covering approximately 2.65 km² and containing 50 surface public parking lots. Due to insufficient underground space and a large number of daily visitors from the outskirts or other cities, the municipal government issued a special plan for parking facilities in 2018, significantly increasing the number of surface public parking lots. This has resulted in a shortage of activity space for residents in the area and strained the relationship between pedestrians and vehicles.

3.1 Integrating Digital Technology and Field Survey Research for Supply and Demand Identification

3.1.1 Potential Spaces for TDM Planning and Design and Gaps in Public Space Demand at the Macro Scale

At the urban scale, this study first utilized mobile signaling data extracted from China Unicom (August 2019) with a precision of 250 meters to detect areas with significant daily flow variations. Based on the characteristic scale of such data, we further divided the research area into 59 grids with a side length of 250 meters, obtaining the 24-hour mobile positioning data for each grid. Overall, each grid exhibited a high flow during the day and low flow at night (Fig.2). With the standard deviation and mean of these positioning data, the coefficient of variation, representing the degree of flow variation in each grid, can be defined:

$CV=\frac{S}{\overline{x}}\times 100\mathrm{\%},$

Fig.2 Changes of population flow by mobile signaling in the study area.

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where CV represents the coefficient of variation, S represents the standard deviation, and x represents the mean.

CV is a value greater than zero, where a larger value indicates greater dispersion among the data^[26]. Its application mainly involves comparing the differences in flow changes between different areas^[27]. Based on the coefficient of variation data of the grids within the research area, it was regarded as high if exceeds 0.3, and low otherwise (Fig.3). A high value implies significant higher fluctuations in population flow within the grid, while a low value for minor fluctuations. Furthermore, considering the overall characteristic of daytime flow exceeding nighttime flow within the research area, a high coefficient of variation might show higher daytime flow and lower nighttime flow within the grid, indicating a large influx of people during the day and a significant outflow at night. As traffic flow is generated based on population movement, many studies utilize traffic data, like card swipe data and bicycle data, to reflect the flow of people in cities^[28][29]. Thus, this study inferred that the vehicle flow in the research area exhibited similar variation characteristics to the population flow. Therefore, the coefficient of variation of the grid where the geometric centroid of a parking lot was located was taken as the coefficient of variation of the parking lot, representing the fluctuation in its usage rate.

Fig.3 Histogram of the coefficient of variation for grids in the study area.

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In addition, the TDM potential of parking lots is also related to their own area size. Using the average area size of parking lots within the research area (2,058 m²) to distinguish between large and small areas, combined with the coefficient of variation, this research categorized four types of parking lots' TDM potential, i.e., large area with high variation, large area with low variation, small area with high variation, and small area with low variation (Fig.4).

Fig.4 Identification of the TDM potential of parking lots.

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Within the research area, most public spaces are located in the peripheral waterfront areas, while those in the central area are relatively scarce (Fig.5). Based on the 500-meter service radius requirement for urban community parks^[30], this study divided residential areas into two categories: those located outside the 500-meter service range (lacking highly accessible public spaces) and those within the service range (having highly accessible public spaces). Results revealed that the spatial overlap between the public space gap and the TDM potential spaces is mainly concentrated in the central part of the research area. This further highlights the rationale for using TDM parking lots to supplement the insufficiency of public spaces.

Fig.5 Identification of insufficiency of public spaces.

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3.1.2 Analysis of Parking Lots' TDM Potential and Residents' Activity Demands at the Micro Scale

Based on the supply and demand characteristics identified at the macro scale, this study selected three large area–high variation public parking lots (Parking Lots A, B, and C, Tab.1) in the center of the research area, which are located outside the 500-meter service range of public spaces, for micro-scale site surveys. This includes a more detailed analysis of moment-by-moment changes in parking lot usage rates and characteristics of human activities at different times. The survey was conducted on October 16 ~ 19, 2019, including both weekdays and the weekend.

Tab.1 Specific information of parking lots

Name	Area (m2)	Green space ratio	Open Form	Parking spot number	Manager
Parking Lot A	4,810	43%	Ground, public	119	District government
Parking Lot B	2,930	2%	Ground, public	100	District government
Parking Lot C	3,350	12%	Ground, public	115	Property management company

The results showed that only Parking Lot B maintained high usage rates on both weekdays and weekends, whereas Parking Lots A and C had high usage rates only during daytime hours (08:00 ~ 16:00) on weekdays, exhibiting a clear tidal pattern (Fig.6). For instance, in Parking Lot A, the usage rate reached 100% at 09:00 on weekdays, began to decline around 19:00, and dropped below 15% after 22:00. While its usage rates on the weekend were generally lower than those on weekdays, dropping to less than 25% around 19:00 and approaching 12% after 22:00.

Fig.6 Changes in parking lot usage rates.

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The survey also found recreational activities spontaneously organized by residents in these parking lots. For example, before 07:00 and after 18:00 on weekdays, nearby residents would use Parking Lot A for walking and exercising; Parking Lot C, adjacent to old communities, also sees residents participating in public activities throughout the day, not just in the early morning and evening. Moreover, the research team conducted random interviews with residents using the parking lots to understand their daily usage pattern and their demands for public activities. On October 17, 2019, the team held a community forum, inviting 20 long-term residents or workers with observations and insights into urban space use to discuss the TDM potential of parking lots. Feedback indicated that due to the scarcity of parks and squares in this area, residents using parking lots for morning exercising and walking had become routine. Their use of the parking lots mainly occurred in the early morning and evening, when they had more free time and there were fewer vehicles. This implied that in terms of the temporal dimension, the change in residents' activity demands and the usage rate of parking lots were complementary, suggesting that TDM parking spaces can supplement the gap in public spaces.

3.2 Planning and Design Strategies for TDM Parking Lots

This study further took Parking Lot A as an example to propose a set of TDM rules based on the dynamic characteristics of parking lot usage rate and residents' activity demand. Through planning methods, the parking lot can function as both a parking space and an activity space in appropriate times. For safety reasons, when parking demand is low and residents' activity demand is high, the parking space can be allocated to serve residents' activities. Conversely, when the parking demand is high, the activity space can be reduced or even eliminated. Finally, it is vital to ensure the implementation of the TDM strategies based on the spatial characteristics of the parking lot and with the assistance of corresponding guidance facilities (Fig.7).

Fig.7 An example of the planning and design strategies.

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Design of the parking signage needs to both delineate neatly arranged parking spaces in accordance with relevant regulations and classify spaces into two types (all-day parking lots and flexible parking lots) based on the extent of conversion between parking and activity spaces. Notably, the all-day parking lots are exclusively for vehicle parking at all times, while the flexible parking lots serve both parking and activity functions, with the mixed-use ratio varying according to the usage rate characteristics of different parking lots.

Activity signage and facilities can guide and emphasize potential activities within the parking lots. Based on the size of the parking spaces, this study proposed a series of activity design modules in varied spot, linear, and zone spaces (Fig.8). Different colors, lines, and geometric shapes in the activity signage can guide site locations and differentiate activities, such as marking tracks or children's play patterns. The selection and placement of activity facilities should not interfere with parking, such as placing basketball stands, sandbags, and fitness equipment outside the parking path. Additionally, collective public activities like morning, night, and flea markets can be introduced. To ensure safety during these activities, retractable bollards can help clearly separate activity spaces from parking spaces. Meanwhile, related managers need to guide and regulate activities, or introduce a reservation system to reasonably schedule usage times and the number of participants.

Fig.8 Design modules for activity signage and facilities.

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Based on the aforementioned design strategies, the study divided TDM periods for Parking Lot A according to the weekday and weekend usage rates: first determining the parking space to be reserved in each period and the corresponding spatial allocation mode, then designing activity signage and arranging activity facilities based on the current demand and surrounding land characteristics (Fig.9). Three types of mixed functions were designed for Parking Lot A: 1) the entire space used for parking on weekdays (07:30 ~ 17:30); 2) 40% of the parking area retained during the weekday mornings and nights (17:30 ~ 07:30 of the next day), and during the daytime on weekends (10:00 ~ 16:00); 3) 30% of the area reserved for parking on weekend mornings and nights (16:00 ~ 10:00 of the next day). In the next step, the team divided the parking area into three parallel spaces based on the spatial characteristics, one for all-day parking lots and two for flexible parking lots to carry different functions. According to the survey results, nearby residents have needs for jogging, exercising, etc., so track elements can be introduced into the parking space, with space left for placing benches and exercise facilities (Fig.10). On weekends, when most of the parking space is idle in Parking Lot A, the management can consider collaboration with commercial operators to use the freed-up space for larger-scale market activities.

Fig.9 TDM rules for Parking Lot A.

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Fig.10 Design plan for Parking Lot A.

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3.3 Gamified Community Promotion Based on Public Participation

After the planning and design of TDM parking lots, it is also necessary to guide public behavior to ensure its implementation. For this purpose, the research team designed an interactive model equipped with circuitry. The materials used in this model include wooden boards, LEDs, breadboards, and DuPont wires.

In Parking Lot A, for example, the interactive model included six small models with the same appearance, representing the six time periods of weekdays and weekends. These models were equipped with different sensing circuits according to the TDM rules, as well as small accessories with sensing circuits representing different user groups such as drivers, residents, and stall keepers. People can place these accessories according to the TDM rules. If they meet the space usage requirements for that time period, the top of the accessory will light up green; otherwise, it will light up red.

The gamified community promotion primarily serves two functions. First, unlike traditional display boards, the form of a physical interactive model can attract higher public attention. Second, through real-time game interaction, the public can quickly grasp the TDM rules for the parking lot. The research team found that during the interaction, even without explanation, the public could quickly understand the rules through the real-time feedback of red and green lights, thereby comprehending the effect and significance of these TDM parking lots (Fig.11).

Fig.11 Public participation with the interactive model.

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4 Discussion and Conclusions

This study takes parking lots as an example to propose a TDM strategy for compact urban spaces, mainly through steps of supply and demand identification, planning and design, and community engagement. In the first phase, it reveals the spatiotemporal complementary characteristics between residents' activity needs and parking lot usage rates. In the second phase, a mixed-function design method can be introduced based on the variation of parking lot usage rates. In the final phase, it emphasizes the role of interactive models in implementing the TDM rules. By integrating the temporal dimension, the TDM strategy overcomes the limitations of spatially mixed-use land resources, maximizing the efficient use of land. Overall, this strategy expands the functions of urban spaces like parking lots, alleviating the common issue of public space scarcity in compact cities^[5][7] and providing a new approach to enhancing the urban operation fairness and efficiency^[8].

The TDM strategy integrates theories related to digital empowerment and public participation, extending the planning and design issues of urban parking infrastructure from the design itself to the identification of supply and demand at the front end and its promotion and implementation at the back end, thus constructing a framework that balances scientific, technical, and social aspects. On the one hand, the data and technological empowerment of the information age can help planning and design professionals comprehensively and efficiently understand the spatiotemporal characteristics of urban parking spaces. On the other hand, due to the complexity of the built environment and the limitations of current big data's spatiotemporal resolution, planners and designers also need to adhere to field surveys, entering urban spaces to deeply analyze problems. Therefore, this study utilized the broad coverage advantage of big data to quickly identify a large number of underutilized urban spaces, while leveraging strengths of field research and interviews to clarify the specific idle situations of parking infrastructure and the activity demands of surrounding residents. Both of them provided substantial basis for subsequent planning and design. Notably, when implementing the TDM strategy, planners also need to consider guiding public behavior. The interactive model proposed in this study can enhance public understanding and acceptance of the planning and design schemes, encouraging them to provide appropriate feedback and adjustment suggestions, which helps increase the feasibility of the planning strategies.

However, this study also has some limitations. Firstly, due to differences in urban parking lot management entities and parking data, the determination of parking lot usage rates mainly relied on population flow data and manual field surveys, rather than the electronic technology at parking entrances directly, resulting in a relatively complex technical process. This issue is expected to improve with the further standardization and systematization of smart city digital infrastructures. In terms of public participation, the interactive model can be developed into an online game combined with virtual reality technology to gather more feedback^[31]. Due to limited conditions, this study failed to quantitatively evaluate the effectiveness of gamified community promotion and could only infer indirectly through the educational effect of public participation activities. Future research can optimize evaluation methods to further validate the effectiveness of the framework. Additionally, this study has certain application limitations as population movements exhibit strong randomness, inevitably leading to conflicts between public activity demands and parking needs. With the development of intelligent vehicles, drivers may be able to remotely move their vehicles to non-activity areas. Furthermore, the safety issues associated with coexisting activities and parking also require further in-depth research in spatial design, management, and operation.

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