
A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Urban Blue Spaces on Residents' Mental Health
Wenya ZHAI, Hanbei CHENG, Feicui GOU, Zilin WANG, Zhigang LI
Landsc. Archit. Front. ›› 2024, Vol. 12 ›› Issue (5) : 20-36.
A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Urban Blue Spaces on Residents' Mental Health
● Conducts a meta-analysis of the impact of urban blue spaces on residents' mental health | |
● Clarifies the measuring indicators and research models of the impact of urban blue spaces on residents' mental health | |
● Quantifies the effect of urban blue spaces on residents' mental health in dimensions of proximity, availability, and visibility | |
● The effect of urban blue spaces on negative psychology is controversial, especially their effect of depression and other psychological disorders, and the findings among existing studies vary significantly |
The research on the impact of urban blue spaces on residents' mental health has attracted great attention from scholars internationally, and quantitative studies of the effects dominate the current academia. This study, on the basis of reviewing the theories of urban blue spaces and residents' mental health, conducted a meta-analysis of 47 key studies by systematically selecting and examining the literature from Web of Science, CNKI, and other databases. This paper analyzed the measuring indicators and research models among the literature and standardized the effect size of the research findings. The meta-analysis results include that: 1) the measurements of the characteristics of urban blue spaces are mainly conducted in space-based and individual-based dimensions; 2) residents' mental health is mainly measured from aspects of general mental health, positive psychology, and negative psychology; 3) the proximity of blue space has a significant positive effect in improving residents' general mental health and positive psychology; 4) the availability of blue space is significantly positively correlated with general mental health and positive psychology; 5) although there are studies confirming that factors such as blue space visibility, frequency of visit, and exposure types have an impact on mental health, the relevant studies are still limited; and 6) research on the effect of blue spaces on negative psychology is controversial, especially on mental disorders such as depression, and the findings among existing studies vary significantly. The results of this meta-analysis can provide guidelines for future research and the construction of healthy cities.
Urban Blue Spaces / Mental Health / Meta Analysis / Environmental Exposure / Effect Size
Tab.1 Literature retrieval subject terms used in this study |
Category | Language | Subject terms |
---|---|---|
Blue space | Chinese | 蓝色空间; 江; 河; 湖; 海; 滨水; 海岸; 河岸; 湿地 |
English | Blue space; river; lake; sea; ocean; waterfront; coastal; | |
Resident | Chinese | 居民; 人; 公众; 老人; 儿童; 青少年; 学生 |
English | Resident; people; public; old; children; teenager; student | |
Mental health | Chinese | 心理健康; 抑郁; 焦虑; 幸福; 情绪; 压力; 强迫症 |
English | Mental health; depression; anxiety; well-being; emotion; stress; obsessive-compulsive |
Tab.2 List of selected literature for meta-analysis in the research |
Literature No. | Published year | Country/region of case study | Population | Indicator(s) of characteristics of urban blue space | Indicator(s) of types of residents' mental health | Research model |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
39 | 2010 | Finland | Adults | Favorite blue space type; visit frequency; visit duration | Restorative experience | Cross-section analysis |
18 | 2013 | England | Adults | Euclidean distance to blue space from residence | Self-reported mental health; life satisfaction | Longitudinal analysis |
40 | 2013 | Canada (students) | Children | Presence of blue space within a 5-km buffer from school | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
41 | 2013 | England | Adults | Visit duration; distance travelled | Self-reported emotional restoration | Cross-section analysis |
42 | 2014 | Spain | Children (students) | Visits per year | ADHD/inattention | Cross-section analysis |
43 | 2014 | USA | Adults (veterans) | Weekly surfing for 5 consecutive weeks | Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and depression | Controlled experiment |
36 | 2015 | Spain | Adults | Presence of blue space within a 300-m buffer from residence | Self-reported mental health; depression and/or anxiety; visits to mental health specialists; intake of medication | Cross-section analysis |
44 | 2015 | Scotland | Adults (employees of science park workplaces) | Window view of blue space from usual work-station | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
45 | 2016 | The Netherlands | Adults | Percentage of blue space within a 1-km buffer from residence | Mental disorder; self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
46 | 2016 | New Zealand | Adults | Blue space visibility of each cell in a residential grid | Stress | Cross-section analysis |
13 | 2017 | England | Adults | Neighborhood exposure; visit frequency; whether visiting blue space yesterday | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
33 | 2017 | Spain | Adults (individuals with psychological distress) | Physical activities and social interactions in blue spaces | Self-reported mental health, and physiological measures (blood pressure, heart rate, salivary cortisol, etc.) | Randomized crossover trial |
17 | 2018 | Spain | Adults (Alzheimer and families) | Presence of blue space within 100- m, 300-m, and 550-m buffers from residence | Depression; anxiety | Cross-section analysis |
21 | 2018 | The Netherlands | All-aged (psychiatric patients) | Percentage of blue space within a 300-m buffer | Duration of hospital admission | Cross-section analysis |
47 | 2018 | USA | Children | Euclidean distance to blue space; presence of blue space within 250- and 1, 250-m buffers from residence | Odds of high depression | Cross-section analysis |
48 | 2018 | Ireland | Older adults | Euclidean distance to blue space; share of visible blue space from residence | Depression | Cross-section analysis |
49 | 2018 | Bulgaria | Younger adults (students) | Euclidean distance to blue space; presence of blue space within a 300-m buffer | Self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
50 | 2018 | Bulgaria | Younger adults (students) | Presence of blue space within 100-m, 300-m, and 550-m buffers from residence | Self-reported mental health | Longitudinal analysis |
51 | 2018 | Germany | Adults | Visit frequency; perceived walking distance to blue space | Self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
52 | 2018 | Switzerland | Adults | Field trip | Physiological parameters; stress; attention restoration | Controlled experiment |
10 | 2019 | England | Adults | Euclidean distance to blue space | Self-reported mental health; anxiety and depression | Cross-section analysis |
32 | 2019 | Hong Kong, China | Older adults | Blue space quality (rating on safety, presence of wildlife, whether generally be free from litter, and have good facilities); types of exposures; visit frequency; walking distance to blue space; activity intensity; visit duration | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
35 | 2019 | England | Adults | Euclidean distance to blue space; freshwater presence | Self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
53 | 2019 | New Zealand | Children (students) | Euclidean distance to blue space; presence of inland blue space in the neighborhood | Subjective well-being; depression | Cross-section analysis |
54 | 2019 | Chinese mainland | Older adults | Ratio of the number of blue space pixels per street view image; Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) | Geriatric depression | Cross-section analysis |
55 | 2019 | Singapore | Children (students) | Whether visit blue spaces | Momentary happiness | Cross-section analysis |
56 | 2019 | UK | Adults | Taking part in twice a week wetland nature-based health intervention for six weeks | Subjective well-being; stress; anxiety | Controlled experiment |
11 | 2020 | Spain | Adults | Walking distance to blue space from residence; visit frequency; visit duration | Perceived restorativeness | Cross-section analysis |
15 | 2020 | Chinese mainland | Adults | Ratio of the number of blue space pixels per street view image; blue space within a 1, 500-m buffer from residence | Self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
57 | 2020 | Chinese mainland | Older adults | Euclidean distance to blue space; NDWI | Self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
58 | 2020 | Chinese mainland | Older adults | Euclidean distance to blue space; ratio of blue space, per capita water area, and patch separation index of blue space within a 1-km buffer | Self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
59 | 2020 | Spain | Adults | Walking in blue space (on 4 days each week, 20 min per day, for 3 weeks) | Subjective well-being; self-reported mental health; mood disturbance; physiological parameters | Randomized crossover trial |
12 | 2021 | Scotland | Older adults | Euclidean distance to blue space; percentage of blue space within 800-m and 1, 600-m buffers from residence | Antidepressant medication prevalence | Cross-section analysis |
14 | 2021 | Chinese mainland | Adults | Percentage of blue space within a 500-m buffer from residence and a 200-m buffer around travel route | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
20 | 2021 | The Netherlands | Adults | Proportion of blue space within 50-m and 100-m buffers from residence | Depression | Cross-section analysis |
34 | 2021 | USA | Younger adults (students) | Walking in blue spaces (compared with walking in the urban environment) | Restorative experience | Randomized crossover trial |
38 | 2021 | UK | Adults | Visit frequency | Subjective well-being; life satisfaction | Cross-section analysis |
60 | 2021 | Chinese mainland | All-aged | Euclidian distance to blue space; blue space area within 300-m, 500-m, and 1, 000-m buffers from residence | Depression; subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
61 | 2021 | 18 countries/regions including the UK and the USA | Adults | Percentage of blue space within a 1, 000-m buffer from residence; visit frequency in the last 4 weeks; nature connectedness | Subjective well-being; mental distress; depression/anxiety medication use | Cross-section analysis |
62 | 2021 | Denmark | Adults (blood donors) | Percentage of blue space within 500 -m, 1, 000-m, and 3, 000-m buffers from residence | Subjective well-being | Longitudinal analysis |
63 | 2021 | Belgium | Adults | Whether live in coastal cities; visit frequency | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
64 | 2021 | Chinese mainland | Children | Environmental characteristics of blue space based on the adolescents' activity paths in the park | Restorative perception | Cross-section analysis |
65 | 2022 | 18 countries/regions including the UK and USA | Adults | Childhood exposure to blue spaces (availability, parents/guardians' attitude to blue space visits, and visit frequency); visit frequency in adulthood | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
66 | 2022 | USA | Adults | Visit frequency; distance to blue space from residence; visit duration | Stress; subjective well-being; life satisfaction | Cross-section analysis |
67 | 2022 | England; Welsh | Adults | Whether can see blue space; whether visit blue space in the past 24 hours | Self-reported mental health | Cross-section analysis |
68 | 2022 | UK | Adults | Perceived proximity to blue space from residence; visit frequency; contact time | Subjective well-being | Cross-section analysis |
69 | 2022 | Belgium | Younger adults (students) | Rating for blue space pictures | Restorative perception | Cross-section analysis |
NOTEDue to the disparity of the classification of research population' among different countries/regions and studies, the statistics in this study were conducted according to the sample characteristics in included literature as 1) children: 0 ~ 18 years old; 2) younger adults: 18 ~ 35 years old; 3) adults: 18 years old and above; 4) older adults: mainly 50 years old and above; and 5) all-aged: covering multiple age groups. |
Tab.3 Overview of methods for measuring the level of mental health |
Mental health | Measurement method | Literature | |
---|---|---|---|
General mental health | The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) | Refs.[10] [15] [18] [33] [35] [36] [50] | |
Mental Health Inventory (MHI-5, a sub-scale 36-Item Short Form Survey) | Refs. [45] [57]~[60] [66] | ||
12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12) | Refs. [51] [62] | ||
Spanish short version of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) | Refs. [33] [59] | ||
10 questions about current emotions using a 5-point Likert scale | Ref. [67] | ||
Positive psychology | Self-reported well-being | The World Health Organization's Five Wellbeing Indexes (WHO-5) | Refs.[14] [32] [38] [53] [59] [61] [65] [68] |
The Short Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (SWEMWBS)/Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS) | Refs. [44] [56] [63] | ||
Four subjective well-being questions (life satisfaction) developed by the UK's Office of National Statistics | Refs. [13] [59] [60] | ||
A single question assessing overall life satisfaction | Refs. [18] [66] | ||
Cantril Ladder | Ref. [40] | ||
Perceived Restorativeness | Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS) | Refs. [11] [64] [69] | |
Restoration Outcome Scales (ROS) | Refs. [11] [39] | ||
Short-version revised restoration scale (SRRS) | Ref. [34] | ||
Emotional restoration survey overview | Ref. [41] | ||
Positive emotions | Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS (positive) | Ref. [56] | |
Others | Reporting "happy moments" at any point in time by pressing one of the sensor buttons | Ref. [55] | |
Negative psychology | Negative emotions | Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) | Refs. [56] [66] |
Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) | Ref. [46] | ||
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS (negative) | Ref. [56] | ||
Mental disorder | The anxious/depression dimension of the EuroQOL five dimensions questionnaire (EQ-5D) | Ref. [10] | |
Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) | Ref. [20] | ||
ADHD/DSM-IV questionnaires | Ref. [42] | ||
The Major Depression Inventory (MDI) | Ref. [43] | ||
The Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist Military Version (PCL-M) | Ref. [43] | ||
McKnight Risk Factor Survey (MRFS) | Ref. [47] | ||
The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) | Ref. [48] | ||
Short form of the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS-SF) | Ref. [53] | ||
The shortened Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15) | Ref. [54] | ||
Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) | Ref. [56] | ||
Others | Self-reported visits to mental health specialists; history of anxiety or depression; history of medication; frequency of medication intake | Refs. [12] [17] [36] [61] | |
Observation of different physiological effects on blood pressure or heart rates | Refs. [52] [59] | ||
The duration of hospital admission for patients of mental disorders | Ref. [21] |
Tab.4 Effect size aggregation results of the proximity to urban blue spaces on residents' mental health (n = 11) |
SMD (95%CI) | Heterogeneity test | Statistical test | Literature | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I2 | Chi2 | Df | z | p | |||||
General mental health | 0.33[0.16, 0.50] | 81% | 10.44 | 2 | 3.82 | 0.0001 | Refs. [10] [18] [35] | ||
Positive psychology | Subjective happiness | 0.15[–0.07, 0.36] | 98% | 141.34 | 3 | 1.35 | 0.18 | Refs.[32] [40] [53] [63] | |
Life satisfaction | 0.19[0.13, 0.26] | 0% | 0.73 | 1 | 5.79 | < 0.00001 | Refs. [13] [18] | ||
Total | 0.15[–0.01, 0.30] | 97% | 41.06 | 4 | 2.73 | 0.006 | — | ||
Negative psychology | Depression | –0.31[–0.75, 0.4] | 91% | 32.89 | 3 | 1.00 | 0.17 | Refs.[10] [17] [48] [60] | |
Anxiety | –0.44[–0.91, 0.03] | — | — | — | 1.83 | 0.07 | Ref. [17] | ||
Total | –0.33[–0.72, 0.06] | 89% | 37.91 | 4 | 1.67 | 0.10 | — |
Tab.5 Effect size aggregation results of the availability of urban blue spaces on residents' mental health (n = 13) |
SMD (95%CI) | Heterogeneity test | Statistical test | Literature | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I2 | Chi2 | Df | z | p | |||||
General mental health | 0.16[0.08, 0.24] | 100% | 1, 106.70 | 5 | 4.04 | < 0.0001 | Refs.[10] [18] [35] [45] [49] [62] | ||
Positive psychology | Subjective happiness | 1.02[0.26, 1.79] | 72% | 7.15 | 2 | 2.62 | 0.009 | Refs. [53] [60] [61] | |
Life satisfaction | 0.87[0.48, 1.26] | — | — | — | 4.38 | < 0.0001 | Ref. [60] | ||
Total | 0.91[0.47, 1.35] | 58% | 7.21 | 3 | 4.06 | < 0.0001 | — | ||
Negative psychology | Depression | –0.33[–0.72, 0.06] | 99% | 422.21 | 6 | 2.52 | 0.01 | Refs.[10] [12] [20] [21] [36] [60] [61] |
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