Biodiversity assessment for tree species was conducted in three forest fragments ofthe Taita Hills, southeastern Kenya to compare species diversity between and within three exotic forest plantations of pine, eucalyptus, cypress and the indigenous forests. The study sites were: Ngangao (120 ha), Chawia (86 ha), and Mbololo (185 ha). A Y-plot design was used to sample 32 plots comprising of 65 subplots. At each subplot, all juvenile trees of 5 cm and above in diameter at breast height (DBH) were enumerated and recorded by species. Tree regeneration (seedlings and saplings) was tallied by species. The Shannon-Weiner Index was used to calculate species diversity and evenness. The derived Shannon’s indices were further converted into effective numbers to show the magnitude of differences in species biodiversities. To evaluate differences in species diversities, a one way ANOVA was conducted and to separate the means, Tukey’s HSD and Duncan’s tests were used for even and uneven number of samples respectively. Jaccard’s similarity index was used to assess species similarities. There were more than 58 species whose stem densities varied between 10 and 2 000 trees per hectare. There were significant differences in species diversities between forest types and sites; the indigenous forests showed higher diversities than the exotic forests. Similarly, Chawia sites had higher species diversity than both Ngangao and Mbololo. Chawia also had a higher number of regenerated species than the two other sites, including species such as Xymalos monospora, Rapanea melanophloeos, and Syzygium guineense, which are associated with low levels of disturbance. These findings indicate that the indigenous forest is more diverse in species as would be expected in the tropics. The high species diversity in Chawia could be accounted for by the higher levels of disturbance it underwent, unlike the two other sites. The regeneration of species associated with low levels of disturbance found in the exotic plots of Chawia show the likelihood of presence of long-term soil seed banks. The low regeneration in the exotics plots observed in Ngangao and Mbololo are likely due to the absence of seed banks since some of the plantations were established on bare land (in Ngango), or the inherent physiology (allelopathy) of some of species repelling the regeneration of others.

A study was carried out to evaluate the effect of shelterwood cutting methods on stand structure and regeneration density. Data were collected from a northern hardwood forest stands in Iran with Fagus orientalis Lipsky as dominant species, with/without shelterwood cutting operation. Results clearly demonstrate that the management of Fagus orientalis Lipsky with shelterwood cutting system affected the frequency and diversity of the understory herbaceous species. The frequency of Viola silvestris Lam., Asperula odorata L., Carex spp. and Rubus hyrcanus Juz increased significantly after shelterwood cutting. The DBH (diameter at breast height) of commercial species in control stands (57.50±2.15 cm) was greater than that in treated stands (50.67±1.88 cm), whereas the total height of trees was similar between treated and control plots (21±0.5 m). The number of Parrotia persica seedlings increased by 13.2% from 1995 to 2005 whereas the number of Fagus orientalis and Carpinus betulus seedlings significantly decreased from 1995 to 2005. In conclusion, it confirms that instead of shelterwood cutting method other silvicultural practices such as selection cutting method should be applied for the mountainous beech stands of Hyrcanian forests.

Enrichment planting is commonly used for increasing the density of desired tree species in secondary forests often characterized by a prevalence of low commercial species. The objectives of the study were to identify the optimal enrichment planting method vis-à-vis gap and line planting, and to evaluate the performance of two dipterocarps (Vatica cinerea and Dipterocarpus alatus) and three legumes (Afzelia xylocarpa, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergia cochinchinensis) planted in logged-over mixed deciduous forest of Laos. The enrichment planting trial was arranged in a randomized complete block design with seven replications. Survival, height and diameter were measured seven years after planting and subjected to analysis of variance. Survival rate of planted seedlings did not vary between enrichment planting (p > 0.05). However, diameter and height growth was favored more in gaps than in planting lines. This was related to rapid canopy closure in both gaps and lines, albeit more remarkable in planting lines. Significant inter-species variation was detected for survival rate, height and diameter. The shade-tolerant dipterocarps had better survival and growth than the light-demanding leguminous species (p < 0.0001). The size class distribution of individuals was irregular, accentuating uneven light condition in the understory. Given the difficulty to maintain constant line width and even light condition, the cost of annual clean operation and the rigid geometric patterns of planting lines, the use of logged-over gaps for enrichment planting is recommended. Dipterocarpus alatus and V. cinerea are recommended for enrichment planting in mixed deciduous forests. A. xylocarpa, D. cochichinensis and P. macrocarpus can be planted in wider gaps, lines and open sites as plantation of mixed species or under canopy of young swidden forests.

In south Meghalaya, farmers maintain a variety of economically important plant species in arecanut agroforestry systems. We investigated plant species composition of arecanut agroforests of south Meghalaya and encountered 160 plants, which included 83 tree species, 22 shrub species, 41 herb species and 14 climber species. The study reveals that arecanut agroforests provide cash income, medicine, timber, fuelwood and edibles for household consumption as well as for sale. We conclude that these agroforestry systems serve as home for many economically important plant species, harbour rich biodiversity and mimic the natural forests both in structural composition as well as ecological and economic functions.

In this work, the difference in number of dominant species in a community on global scale and successional trajectories was analyzed based on the published data. We explained the reasons of these differences using a resource availability hypothesis, proposed in this work, that the distribution of available resource determined the pattern of community dominance. The results showed that on global scale the number of dominant species of community varied across latitudinal forest zone, namely from single-species dominance in boreal and temperate forest to multi-species codominance, even no dominant species in tropical forest. This was consistent with the pattern of resource distribution on global scale. Similarly, in successional trajectories, the number of dominant species gradually radiated from single-species dominance to multi-species codominance, even no dominant species in tropical forest. The changing available resources in trajectories were responsible for this difference. By contrary, a community was often dominated by single species in temperate or boreal forest. This was determined by the low available resource, especially low available water and temperature. In boreal forest, low temperature greatly reduced availability of water and nutrient, which were responsible for the single-species dominance. In addition, the conclusion that high available resources sustained low dominance of community might be deduced, based on the fact that the dominance of community declined with the increasing of species diversity. To sum up, the richer the available resources were, the lower the dominance of community was, and vice versa. The hypothesis that the resource availability controlled the dominance of community could well elucidate the difference of community dominance on global and community scale.

Forest ecosystem services contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly. Here the economic value of water conservation by Bazoft basin located in Zagros forests in western Iran was estimated, using simulation models and Geographic Information System (GIS) as a tool for analyzing the effects of ecological factors on ecosystem services. Rainfall-runoff simulation was carried out by using Curve Number (CN) method in HEC-HMS model. The model requires the inputs of land cover, soil and short term rainfall and discharge data. The efficiency of simulated model was revised using observed data and doing calibration stages. The role of forest on water retention and surface runoff reduction by devising four hypothetical scenarios and then the effects of land use changes associated with these scenarios on rainfall-runoff behavior of the region were determined. The results show that under the case of scenario one which assumes that the entire of basin area is covered by forests, total outflow would be in the minimum amount and rainfall initial loss will increase. Forest hydrological services related to water retention was economically assessed using Replacement Cost Method. Valuation results show that each hectare of Bazoft forests can store 84.8 m³ water with 0.5 US$/ m³ annual value. So the water retention value of each hectare of these forests will be 43US$. This could have positive economic consequences for the region and would help decision-makers in selecting appropriate and economically feasible development strategies.

CH₄ is one of the most important greenhouse gases, and mainly comes from soils in forest ecosystems. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of forest management practices such as understory removal and N-fixing species (Cassia alata) addition, on soil CH₄ fluxes in four forest plantations in southern China. Fluxes of CH₄ were measured in Eucalyptus urophylla plantation (B₁), Acacia crassicarpa plantation (B₂), 10-native-species-mixed plantation (B₃), and 30- native-species-mixed plantation (B₄) stands using the static chamber method in Southern China. Four forest management treatments, including (1) understory removal and replacement with C. alata (UR+CA); (2) understory removal only (UR); (3) C. alata addition only (CA); and (4) control without any disturbances (CK), were applied in the four forest plantations. The results showed that plantation types had a significant effect on soil CH₄ fluxes. B₁ and B₂ tended to be CH₄ consumers, while B₃ and B₄ inclined to be CH₄ producers. UR decreased CH₄ fluxes by providing a more optimal soil temperature and moisture regime for microorganism community and increasing substrate mineralization. However, CA enhanced CH₄ fluxes in B₁ and B₂ for N-fixing function of C. alata while lowered CH₄ fluxes in B₃ and B₄. Soil CH₄ flux rate was significantly related to soil temperature and moisture conditions in the top 10-cm soil layer. Furthermore, the quality of substrates, such as Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) and mineral N might also be important driving factors for CH₄ fluxes. This study improved our understanding on CH₄ fluxes in plantations under different management practices such as UR and CA.

A study was conducted at two pair sites of Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh to find out the effects of shifting cultivation on soil fungi and bacterial population. The first pair of sites with shifting cultivation and village common forest-managed by indigenous community was at Madhya Para in Rangamati district and the second pair of sites with the shifting cultivated land and village common forest at Ampu Para in Bandarban district of Chittagong Hill Tracts. At both the locations with two different land uses, soil textures in surface (0–10 cm) and subsurface (10–20 cm) soils varied from sandy loam to sandy clay loam. Soil pH and moisture content were lower in shifting cultivated land compared to village common forest. The results also showed that both fungal and bacterial population in surface and subsurface soils was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower, in most cases, in shifting cultivated land compared to village common forest at both Madhya Para and Ampu Para. At Rangamati and Bandarban in shifting cultivated lands, Colletrotrichum and Fusarium fungi were absent and all the bacterial genus viz. Coccus, Bacillus and Streptococcus common in two different locations with different land uses. Common identified fungi at both the land uses and locations were Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Trichoderma and Penicillium. Further study can be done on the other soil biota to understand the extent of environmental deterioration due to shifting cultivation.

The study dealt with the assessment of impact of deforestation on soil through a comparative analysis of soil physicochemical properties of natural forest and deforested areas. Soil samples from three depths (top, middle and bottom) under natural forest and nearby deforested areas were collected to investigate soil properties. Forest soils show no significant change in particle size distribution. Bulk density of forested soils shows the significant differences in top and middle layers. Soil pH in top and middle soil, organic matter in top soil and available phosphorus in middle soil of the forest site are found to be significantly higher than that of the deforested soils. Forest soils also have significantly higher level of exchangeable Ca²⁺, K⁺ in top and middle soil and Mg²⁺ at all depth than those of deforested site. Exchangeable Na⁺ and cation exchange capacity (CEC) are observed unchanged in both sites. The results suggest that change in soil properties was more obvious in surface and sub surface portions of both areas. The study shows that deterioration of physicochemical properties occurred due to deforestation.

Germin and Germin-like protein (GLP) have various proposed roles in plant developmental stages and stress- related processes. A novel GLP cDNA clone was isolated from a cDNA library of Tamarix hispida. ThGLP, coded 225aa, possesses conserved motif of plant germin and Germin-like protein. ThGLP belongs to true germin subfamily through phylogenetic analyses. Gene expression profiles in roots and leaves were evaluated using real-time quantitative RT-PCR. The results show that the gene was highly induced by drought, salt, low temperature, CdCl₂ and abscisic acid treatments. Our results demonstrate that the ThGLP gene is expressed in leaves and roots, is involved in different abiotic stress responses and controlled by an ABA-dependent signaling pathway.

The present study was undertaken in seven natural forest types of temperate zone (1500 to 3100 m, a.s.l.) of Garhwal Himalaya to understand the effects of slope aspects viz., north-east (NE), north-west (NW), south-east (SE) and south-west (SW), on the forest structure, composition and soil characteristics of each selected forest type. The sample plots in each forest type were laid out by using stratified random approach. The indices i.e., the Importance Value Index, Shannon-Wiener diversity index, Simpson’s concentration of Dominance, Simpson diversity index, Pielou equitability and Margalef species richness index were calculated statistically using standard softwares to elucidate the differences in forest structure and composition of forest types on different slope aspects of the sites. The composite soil samples were taken from each forest stand and the physico-chemical properties of the soil i.e., moisture content (MC), water holding capacity (WHC), pH, organic carbon (OC), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and available nitrogen (N) were analyzed. The results show that the higher values of total basal cover (74.4 m²·ha⁻¹ in Quercus semecarpifolia forest), Concentration of dominance (0.85 in Pinus roxburghii forest) and Tree diversity (1.81 in Quercus floribunda forest) in the forests were recorded in the northern aspects. MC (40.8% in Quercus leucotrichophora forest), WHC (48.9% in Cupressus torulosa forest), OC (3.8% in Cedrus deodara forest), P (31.9 kg·ha⁻¹ in Quercus leucotrichophora forest) and N (1.0% in Pinus roxburghii forest) had also higher values in the soils of northern aspects. Consequently the higher productivity of the forests was also noticed on the northern aspects.

Three pod lengths (< 10 cm, 10–20 cm and > 20 cm) and 13 pre-sowing treatments were considered with four dates of collection (9 February, 19 February, 1 March and 11 March) to investigate their effect on germination rate and growth of seedlings of Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. at Pundibari, West Bengal, India. The best time of pod collection was on 19 February as the germination rate of the seeds collected on this date was 92.5% without requiring any pre-sowing treatments. This clearly indicated that the seeds collected on 19 February were nondormant, viable and physiologically mature. Significantly better seedling growth was also obtained when the seeds were sown on 19 February which was extracted from pods of length 10–20 cm. Application of thiourea as a pre-treatment did not significantly enhanced seed germination rate, but its application in lower concentration (100 μL-L-1) resulted in better seedling growth and development.

Assessment of the forest land use change and proposed land suitability for tea for the area along Laos - China Border were the main purpose of this research paper. An integrated GIS-based analysis system (IGAS), supporting assessment of forest land-use and land suitability for the study area where along Laos-China border was developed. Multi criteria analysis and system dynamics techniques were used to assess forest land use and land suitability and to forecast potential land-use for tea. The total study area is estimated at 10 325.07 km² according to the field data collection and data analysis. The area of current forest cover decreased rapidly from 6337.33 km² (61.38%) in 1992 to 5106.28 km² (49.46%) in 2002 in the study area. The current forest was mainly transferred to potential forest and permanent agriculture especially to rubber plantation areas even in the National Conservation Biodiversity Conservation Areas. The main causes of forest land use change are poverty. In order to address the problems, land suitability classification for tea was developed based on the multi-criteria. And finally two options of land suitability classification for tea for the study areas were developed.

Spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens)) is one of the most serious forest insect pests in North America. Laboratory bioassays were performed to determine the lethal doses and lethal time of pyrethrins (a botanical insecticide) on 4th instar larvae of spruce budworm using larval dip assay. Results show that the LT₅₀ values (time of 50% larval mortality) for spruce budworm at the pyrethrins concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 μg·L⁻¹ were 94.78, 45.54, 20.36, 14.39 and 11.37 h, respectively. The percentage of cumulative mortality at the pyrethrins concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200 μg·L⁻¹ was approximately 50%, 67%, 93%, 100% and 100% within 120 h, respectively. The LC₅₀ value (concentration of 50% larval mortality) for the 4^th instar larvae was 16.1μg·L⁻¹. Thus, larval mortality of spruce budworm increased in a concentration-dependent manner, and lethal time decreased with increasing pyrethin concentrations. These findings suggest that pyrethrins have a potential in controlling spruce budworm populations.

The study focuses on the dynamics and biomass production (g·m⁻²) of understory (herbaceous) plant community under broad-leaf forests consisting of Quercus leucotrichophora (Banj-oak), Quercus floribunda (Tilonj-oak) and Quercus semicarpifolia (Kharsu-oak), respectively in central Himalaya, India. With increasing altitudes, the density and biomass decreased significantly across the three types of forests. Banj-oak forest harboured the maximum density and biomass among the other sampling sites. The mean density of herb species in two contrasting orientation differed significantly (p<0.05), showing relatively higher density on slope orientation (west). Across the sites, total production declined significantly with increasing altitude of the sites (p<0.05), and Banj-oak forest presented the highest production.

We used sequences of mitochondrial control region (807bp) in 75 samples from three breeding colonies and one wintering population to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure of Marsh Grassbird (Locustella pryeri sinensis) in different regions of China. Marsh Grassbird retained a moderate amount of haplotype (0.759 ± 0.056) and nucleotide diversity (0.002). The results of F _ST among 3 phylogeographic units and Φ _ST between breeding and wintering sites revealed little evidence of genetic distinction between different colonies. Neither UPGMA tree structure analysis nor Network picture analysis showed obvious divergence between populations at different locations. Analysis of molecular variance also showed a lack of regional subdivision within Locustella pryeri sinesis, 98.5% of source of variation within populations and only 1.5% among populations. The neutrality test showed negative Fu’s FS value, which, in combination with detection of the mismatch distribution, suggested that population expansion occurred in the evolutionary history of this species. This hypothesis was further supported by Tajima’s D test and Fu’s test (D = −1.80, p = 0.02; Fs = −22.11, p = 0.001), this expansion was estimated to occur about 28,700 years ago.

Understanding basic reproductive physiology is crucial for the management of both captive and free-ranging wolf. In the present study, we determined hormonal changes during pregnancy and the estrous cycle in captive female wolf by measuring fecal steroids collected during the breeding season with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These biochemical analyses were validated using chemical devivatization and mass spectrometry, and interpreted along with the behavioral data. All four females undergoing estrus cycles were copulated with their partners and delivered pups successfully. We found that estradiol concentrations were significantly higher during the estrus cycle than other stages (p<0.01) and progesterone was also significantly increased throughout the pregnancy (p<0.01). These hormonal fluctuations demonstrated pregnancy-specific changes in the fecal progesterone and estradiol concentrations. Patterns of fecal estradiol and progesterone concentrations during estrous cycles were similar to those reported for other canids.

The effect of maleic anhydride grafted styrene-ethylene- butylene-styrene block copolymer (SEBS-g-MAH) and in-situ grafting MAH on mechanical, dynamic mechanical properties of wood flour/recycled plastic blends composites was investigated. Recycled plastic polypropylene (PP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polystyrene (PS), were mixed with wood flour in a high speed blender and then extruded by a twin/single screw tandem extruder system to form wood flour/recycled plastic blends composites. Results show that the impact properties of the composites were improved more significantly by using SEBS-g-MAH compatibilizer than by using the mixtures of MAH and DCP via reactive blending in situ. However, contrary results were observed on the tensile and flexural properties of the corresponding composites. In General, the mechanical properties of composites made from recycled plastic blends were inferior to those made from virgin plastic blends, especially in elongation break. The morphological study verified that the interfacial adhesion or the compatibility of plastic blends with wood flour was improved by adding SEBS-g-MAH or in-situ grafting MAH. A better interfacial bonding between PP, HDPE, PS and wood flour was obtained by in-situ grafting MAH than the addition of SEBS-g-MAH. In-situ grafting MAH can be considered as a potential way of increasing the interfacial compatibility between plastic blends and wood flour. The storage modulus and damping factor of composites were also characterized through dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA).

Striga hermonthica is a major constraint to smallholder subsistence agriculture production in the sub-Saharan African region. Low soil fertility and overall environmental degradation has contributed to the build-up of the parasitic weed infestation. Improved cropping systems have to be introduced to address the interrelated problems of S. hermonthica and soil fertility decline. Thus, the effects of improved fallow with leguminous shrub Sesbania sesban on maize yields and levels of S. hermonthica infestation on farm land in the bimodal highlands of western Kenya were investigated. The experimental treatments were arranged in a phased entry, and randomized complete block scheme were six months Sesbania fallow, 18 months Sesbania fallow, six months natural fallow consisting of regrowth of natural vegetation without cultivation, 18 months natural fallow, continuous maize cropping without fertilizer application, and continuous maize cropping with P and N fertilization. Results show that Sesbania fallows significantly (p<0.05) increase maize yield relative to continuous unfertilized maize. S. hermonthica plant populations decrease in continuous maize between the first season (mean = 428 000 ± 63 000 ha⁻¹) and second season (mean=51 000 ± 15 000 ha⁻¹), presumably in response to good weed management. S. hermonthica seed populations in the soil decrease throughout the duration of the experiment in the continuous maize treatments. Short-duration Sesbania fallows can provide modest yield improvements relative to continuous unfertilized maize, but short-duration weedy fallows are ineffective. Continuous maize cultivation with good weed control may provide more effective S. hermonthica control than fallowing.

A species of the genus Gonoclostera Butler, 1877, G. fangi sp. nov., from Yunnan, China is described in the present paper. Generic diagnosis and list of world species, as well as the photos of adults and genitalia of the new species are also provided.

Seasonal dynamics of above- and belowground biomass and nutrient characteristics (nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus) of Carex lasiocarpa were investigated in the typical wetland of Sanjiang Plain, China from May 2007 to September 2008. The results show that the changes of aboveground biomass during the growing season are best described by the twice function curve model, whereas the changes of belowground biomass follow the exponential increase curve model. Both the organic carbon contents in the above- and belowground plant parts show significant positive linear correlations with the growing time, and the coefficients R ² are 0.983 and 0.746, respectively. The carbon accumulations of the above- and belowground plant parts during the growing season show the same dynamics as those of the biomass. However, the nitrogen contents and accumulation in C. lasiocarpa aboveground and belowground parts show exponential increase during the growing season. The dynamics of C. lasiocarpa phosphorus contents follows the twice function curve model, whereas the accumulation of phosphorus shows the linear increase. The ratios of C/N in different parts of C. lasiocarpa fit the negative linear relations with total nitrogen content in the growing season. Moreover, the ratios of C/P in C. lasiocarpa plant also fit the negative linear relations with total phosphorus content. The results show that nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient for C. lasiocarpa growth as compared with carbon and phosphorus.