Role of Fe-based nanoparticles introduced into soil–plant systems or contaminated soil–plant systems: toxic substance or remediation agent?

Highlights

	● Evolution of Fe-NPs in soil matrix and their impacts on soil health were evaluated.
	● Fe-NPs increased plant weight but inhibited length and pigment in soil–plant systems.
	● Fe-NPs significantly increase Fe content and reduce pollutants in plants.
	● Remediation mechanisms of Fe-NPs in contaminated soil–plant systems were summarized.

Abstract

Iron-based nanoparticles (Fe-NPs) exhibit promising potential for soil remediation. However, their toxic effects on plants have also been reported. Typical Fe-NPs have been introduced into soil–plant systems to examine their possible nanotoxicity and other impacts on plants, while Fe-NPs have been added to pollutant–soil–plant systems to evaluate their performance as remediation agents. Mixed opinions and results have been reported regarding interactions between Fe-NPs and soil or plants. Here, meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the effects of Fe-NPs on plant morphological and physiological characteristics in soil–plant and pollutant–soil–plant systems. Interestingly, morphological characteristics (dry and fresh weight) were significantly improved by Fe-NPs in both soil–plant and pollutant–soil–plant systems. In terms of plant physiological characteristics, Fe-NPs exerted negative effects on plant pigments in soil–plant systems, but positive effects in pollutant–soil–plant systems. In addition, Fe-NPs greatly increased the Fe contents and decreased the pollutant contents of plants. This study also provides a comprehensive review of the positive and negative effects of Fe-NPs on soil–plant systems and summarizes the pollutant remediation mechanisms of Fe-NPs in soil–plant systems. The results underscore the potential of Fe-NPs in agricultural applications and the future development of food safety.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Iron-based nanoparticles / Meta-analysis / Soil–plant system / Nanotoxicity / Soil remediation

References

[1] Adrees M, Khan Z S, Ali S, Hafeez M, Khalid S, Ur Rehman M Z, Hussain A, Hussain K, Shahid Chatha S A, Rizwan M. (2020). Simultaneous mitigation of cadmium and drought stress in wheat by soil application of iron nanoparticles. Chemosphere, 238: 124681

[2] Ahmed T, Noman M, Manzoor N, Shahid M, Abdullah M, Ali L, Wang G, Hashem A, Al-Arjani A B F, Alqarawi A A. . (2021). Nanoparticle-based amelioration of drought stress and cadmium toxicity in rice via triggering the stress responsive genetic mechanisms and nutrient acquisition. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 209: 111829

[3] Alazaiza M Y D, Albahnasawi A, Copty N K, Bashir M J K, Nassani D E, Al Maskari T, Abu Amr S S, Abujazar M S S. (2022). Nanoscale zero-valent iron application for the treatment of soil, wastewater and groundwater contaminated with heavy metals: a review. Desalination and Water Treatment, 253: 194–210

[4] Alengebawy A, Abdelkhalek S T, Qureshi S R, Wang M Q. (2021). Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: ecological risks and human health implications. Toxics, 9(3): 42

[5] Alidoust D, Isoda A. (2013). Effect of γFe₂O₃ nanoparticles on photosynthetic characteristic of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.): foliar spray versus soil amendment. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 35(12): 3365–3375

[6] Alidoust D, Isoda A. (2014). Phytotoxicity assessment of γ-Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles on root elongation and growth of rice plant. Environmental Earth Sciences, 71(12): 5173–5182

[7] Anwar A, Wang Y, Chen M, Zhang S, Wang J, Feng Y, Xue Y, Zhao M, Su W, Chen R. . (2024). Zero-valent iron (nZVI) nanoparticles mediate SlERF1 expression to enhance cadmium stress tolerance in tomato. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 468: 133829

[8] Asli S, Neumann P M. (2009). Colloidal suspensions of clay or titanium dioxide nanoparticles can inhibit leaf growth and transpiration via physical effects on root water transport. Plant, Cell & Environment, 32(5): 577–584

[9] Barhoumi L, Oukarroum A, Taher L B, Smiri L S, Abdelmelek H, Dewez D. (2015). Effects of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles on photosynthesis and growth of the aquatic plant Lemna gibba. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 68(3): 510–520

[10] Barra Caracciolo A, Terenzi V. (2021). Rhizosphere microbial communities and heavy metals. Microorganisms, 9(7): 1462

[11] Ben-Moshe T, Frenk S, Dror I, Minz D, Berkowitz B. (2013). Effects of metal oxide nanoparticles on soil properties. Chemosphere, 90(2): 640–646

[12] Bidi H, Fallah H, Niknejad Y, Barari Tari D. (2021). Iron oxide nanoparticles alleviate arsenic phytotoxicity in rice by improving iron uptake, oxidative stress tolerance and diminishing arsenic accumulation. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 163: 348–357

[13] CaoJ L, Feng Y Z, LinX G (2017). Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles on Maize growth and Fe-uptake. Journal of Ecology and Rural Environment, 33: 555–563 (in Chinese)

[14] CaoY, MaC, WhiteJ C, Cao Y, ZhangF, TongR, YuH, HaoY, YanW, KahM, et al. (2024). Engineered nanomaterials reduce metal(loid) accumulation and enhance staple food production for sustainable agriculture. Nature Food,

[15] Cao Z Z, Qin M L, Lin X Y, Zhu Z W, Chen M X. (2018). Sulfur supply reduces cadmium uptake and translocation in rice grains (Oryza sativa L.) by enhancing iron plaque formation, cadmium chelation and vacuolar sequestration. Environmental Pollution, 238: 76–84

[16] Chen A Q, Wang H R, Zhan X P, Gong K L, Xie W W, Liang W Y, Zhang W, Peng C. (2024a). Applications and synergistic degradation mechanisms of nZVI-modified biochar for the remediation of organic polluted soil and water: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 911: 168548

[17] Chen F, Jiang F, Okla M K, Abbas Z K, Al-Qahtani S M, Al-Harbi N A, Abdel-Maksoud M A, Gómez-Oliván L M. (2024b). Nanoparticles synergy: enhancing wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cadmium tolerance with iron oxide and selenium. Science of the Total Environment, 915: 169869

[18] Chen H. (2018). Metal based nanoparticles in agricultural system: behavior, transport, and interaction with plants. Chemical Speciation and Bioavailability, 30(1): 123–134

[19] Chen X, Li X, Xu D, Yang W, Bai S. (2020). Application of nanoscale zero-valent iron in hexavalent chromium-contaminated soil: a review. Nanotechnology Reviews, 9(1): 736–750

[20] Cheng L, Yuqing S, Daniel C W T, Lin D. (2018). Environmental transformations and ecological effects of iron-based nanoparticles. Environmental Pollution, 232: 10–30

[21] Choi H, Al-Abed S R, Agarwal S, Dionysiou D D. (2008). Synthesis of reactive nano-Fe/Pd bimetallic system-impregnated activated carbon for the simultaneous adsorption and dechlorination of PCBs. Chemistry of Materials, 20(11): 3649–3655

[22] Dong H, Li L, Wang Y, Ning Q, Wang B, Zeng G. (2020). Aging of zero-valent iron-based nanoparticles in aqueous environment and the consequent effects on their reactivity and toxicity. Water Environment Research: a research publication of the Water Environment Federation, 92(5): 646–661

[23] Dwivedi A D, Yoon H, Singh J P, Chae K H, Rho S C, Hwang D S, Chang Y S. (2018). Uptake, distribution, and transformation of zerovalent iron nanoparticles in the edible plant Cucumis sativus. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(17): 10057–10066

[24] Ganesh-Kumar S, Kalimuthu K, Jebakumar S R D. (2017). Characterization of newly synthesized starch coated Fe/Cu nanoparticles and its dechlorination efficiency on the low and high chlorinated biphenyls. Protection of Metals and Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, 53(4): 685–692

[25] Geng J, Liu X, Wang J, Li S. (2022). Accumulation and risk assessment of antibiotics in edible plants grown in contaminated farmlands: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 853: 158616

[26] Ghaffarzadeh Z, Iranbakhsh A, Ebadi M. (2021). Evaluation of potential physiological and molecular responses of basil (Ocimum basilicum) to the application of Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles. Journal of Nanostructure in Chemistry, 12: 589–597

[27] Ghosh I, Mukherjee A, Mukherjee A. (2017). In planta genotoxicity of nZVI: influence of colloidal stability on uptake, DNA damage, oxidative stress and cell death. Mutagenesis, 32(3): 371–387

[28] Ghouri F, Sarwar S, Sun L X, Riaz M, Haider F U, Ashraf H, Lai M Y, Imran M, Liu J W, Ali S. . (2024). Silicon and iron nanoparticles protect rice against lead(Pb) stress by improving oxidative tolerance and minimizing Pb uptake. Scientific Reports, 14(1): 5986

[29] Ghrair A M, Ingwersen J, Streck T. (2010). Immobilization of heavy metals in soils amended by nanoparticulate zeolitic tuff: sorption‐desorption of cadmium. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 173(6): 852–860

[30] Gil-Díaz M, Álvarez-Aparicio J, Alonso J, Mancho C, Lobo M C, González J, García-Gonzalo P. (2024). Soil properties determine the impact of nZVI on Lactuca sativa L. and its rhizosphere. Environmental Pollution, 341: 122683

[31] Gil-Díaz M, Pinilla P, Alonso J, Lobo M C. (2017). Viability of a nanoremediation process in single or multi-metal(loid) contaminated soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 321: 812–819

[32] Gómez-Sagasti M T, Epelde L, Anza M, Urra J, Alkorta I, Garbisu C. (2019). The impact of nanoscale zero-valent iron particles on soil microbial communities is soil dependent. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 364: 591–599

[33] Gong X, Huang D, Liu Y, Zeng G, Wang R, Wan J, Zhang C, Cheng M, Qin X, Xue W. (2017). Stabilized nanoscale zerovalent iron mediated cadmium accumulation and oxidative damage of Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich cultivated in cadmium contaminated sediments. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(19): 11308–11316

[34] Guha T, Barman S, Mukherjee A, Kundu R. (2020). Nano-scale zero valent iron modulates Fe/Cd transporters and immobilizes soil Cd for production of Cd free rice. Chemosphere, 260: 127533

[35] Guo J, Wei Y, Yang J, Chen T, Zheng G, Qian T, Liu X, Meng X, He M. (2023). Cultivars and oil extraction techniques affect Cd/Pb contents and health risks in oil of rapeseed grown on Cd/Pb-contaminated farmland. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 17(7): 87

[36] Hannan F, Iqbal M, Islam F, Farooq M A, Shakoor M B, Ayyaz A, Khan M S S, Li J J, Huang Q, Zhou W J. (2024). Remediation of Cd-polluted soil, improving Brassica napus L. growth and soil health with Hardystonite synthesized with zeolite, limestone, and green Zinc oxide nanoparticles. Journal of Cleaner Production, 437: 140737

[37] He S, Feng Y, Ni J, Sun Y, Xue L, Feng Y, Yu Y, Lin X, Yang L. (2016). Different responses of soil microbial metabolic activity to silver and iron oxide nanoparticles. Chemosphere, 147: 195–202

[38] He S, Feng Y, Ren H, Zhang Y, Gu N, Lin X. (2011). The impact of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles on the soil bacterial community. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 11(8): 1408–1417

[39] Hu J, Guo H, Li J, Gan Q, Wang Y, Xing B. (2017). Comparative impacts of iron oxide nanoparticles and ferric ions on the growth of Citrus maxima. Environmental Pollution, 221: 199–208

[40] Huang D, Qin X, Peng Z, Liu Y, Gong X, Zeng G, Huang C, Cheng M, Xue W, Wang X. . (2018). Nanoscale zero-valent iron assisted phytoremediation of Pb in sediment: Impacts on metal accumulation and antioxidative system of Lolium perenne. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 153: 229–237

[41] Huang D, Xue W, Zeng G, Wan J, Chen G, Huang C, Zhang C, Cheng M, Xu P. (2016). Immobilization of Cd in river sediments by sodium alginate modified nanoscale zero-valent iron: impact on enzyme activities and microbial community diversity. Water Research, 106: 15–25

[42] Huang G, Pan D, Wang M, Zhong S, Huang Y, Li F, Li X, Xing B. (2022a). Regulation of iron and cadmium uptake in rice roots by iron(iii) oxide nanoparticles: insights from iron plaque formation, gene expression, and nanoparticle accumulation. Environmental Science. Nano, 9(11): 4093–4103

[43] Huang X, Chen L, Ma Z, Carroll K C, Zhao X, Huo Z. (2022b). Cadmium removal mechanistic comparison of three Fe-based nanomaterials: water-chemistry and roles of Fe dissolution. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 16(12): 151

[44] Hui C, Zhang Y, Ni X, Cheng Q, Zhao Y, Zhao Y, Du L, Jiang H. (2021). Interactions of iron-based nanoparticles with soil dissolved organic matter: adsorption, aging, and effects on hexavalent chromium removal. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 406: 124650

[45] Hussain A, Ali S, Rizwan M, Rehman M Z U, Qayyum M F, Wang H, Rinklebe J. (2019). Responses of wheat (Triticum aestivum) plants grown in a Cd contaminated soil to the application of iron oxide nanoparticles. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 173: 156–164

[46] Hussain A, Rizwan M, Ali S, Rehman M Z U, Qayyum M F, Nawaz R, Ahmad A, Asrar M, Ahmad S R, Alsahli A A. . (2021). Combined use of different nanoparticles effectively decreased cadmium (Cd) concentration in grains of wheat grown in a field contaminated with Cd. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 215: 112139

[47] Iannone M F, Groppa M D, Zawoznik M S, Coral D F, Fernandez Van Raap M B, Benavides M P. (2021). Magnetite nanoparticles coated with citric acid are not phytotoxic and stimulate soybean and alfalfa growth. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 211: 111942

[48] Jae-Hwan K, Oh Y, Hakwon Y, Hwang I, Yoon-Seok C. (2015). Iron nanoparticle-induced activation of plasma membrane H-ATPase promotes stomatal opening in Arabidopsis thaliana. Environmental Science & Technology, 49: 2

[49] Jae-Hwan K, Yongjik L, Eun-Ju K, Sungmin G, Sohn E, Seo Y S, An H, Yoon-Seok C. (2014). Exposure of iron nanoparticles to Arabidopsis thaliana enhances root elongation by triggering cell wall loosening. Environmental Science & Technology, 48: 6

[50] Jiang D, Zeng G, Huang D, Chen M, Zhang C, Huang C, Wan J. (2018). Remediation of contaminated soils by enhanced nanoscale zero valent iron. Environmental Research, 163: 217–227

[51] Jin Y, Wang Y X, Li X, Luo T, Ma Y S, Wang B, Liang H. (2023). Remediation and its biological responses to Cd(II)-Cr(VI)-Pb(II) multi-contaminated soil by supported nano zero-valent iron composites. Science of the Total Environment, 867: 161344

[52] Johri N, Jacquillet G, Unwin R. (2010). Heavy metal poisoning: the effects of cadmium on the kidney. Biometals, 23(5): 783–792

[53] Jorfi S, Samaei M R, Darvishi Cheshmeh Soltani R, Talaie Khozani A, Ahmadi M, Barzegar G, Reshadatian N, Mehrabi N. (2017). Enhancement of the bioremediation of pyrene-contaminated soils using a hematite nanoparticle-based modified Fenton oxidation in a sequenced approach. Soil & Sediment Contamination, 26(2): 141–156

[54] Kandhol N, Aggarwal B, Bansal R, Parveen N, Singh V P, Chauhan D K, Sonah H, Sahi S, Grillo R, Peralta-Videa J. . (2022). Nanoparticles as a potential protective agent for arsenic toxicity alleviation in plants. Environmental Pollution, 300: 118887

[55] Kim C, Chin Y P, Ahn J Y, Wei-Haas M, Mcadams B, Hwang I. (2018). Reciprocal influences of dissolved organic matter and nanosized zero-valent iron in aqueous media. Chemosphere, 193: 936–942

[56] Kim J H, Kim D, Seo S M, Kim D. (2019). Physiological effects of zero-valent iron nanoparticles in rhizosphere on edible crop, Medicago sativa (Alfalfa), grown in soil. Ecotoxicology, 28(8): 869–877

[57] Le Wee J, Law M C, Chan Y S, Choy S Y, Tiong A N T. (2022). The potential of Fe‐based magnetic nnanomaterials for the agriculture sector. ChemistrySelect, 7(17): e202104603

[58] Lei C, Zhang L, Yang K, Zhu L, Lin D. (2016). Toxicity of iron-based nanoparticles to green algae: effects of particle size, crystal phase, oxidation state and environmental aging. Environmental Pollution, 218: 505–512

[59] Li J, Hu J, Xiao L, Wang Y, Wang X. (2018a). Interaction mechanisms between alpha-Fe₂O₃, gamma-Fe₂O₃ and Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles and Citrus maxima seedlings. Science of the Total Environment, 625: 677–685

[60] Li J, Yang D Z, Zou W S, Feng X Z, Wang R H, Zheng R J, Luo S Y, Chu Z T, Chen H. (2024). Mechanistic insights into the synergetic remediation and amendment effects of zeolite/biochar composite on heavy metal-polluted red soil. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 18(9): 114

[61] Li L, Hu J, Shi X, Fan M, Luo J, Wei X. (2016). Nanoscale zero-valent metals: a review of synthesis, characterization, and applications to environmental remediation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 23(18): 17880–17900

[62] Li T, Cao X, Zhao R, Cui Z. (2023a). Stress response to nanoplastics with different charges in Brassica napus L. during seed germination and seedling growth stages. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 17(4): 43

[63] Li X Q, Elliott D W, Zhang W X. (2006). Zero-valent iron nanoparticles for abatement of environmental pollutants: materials and engineering aspects. Critical Reviews in Solid State and Material Sciences, 31(4): 111–122

[64] Li Y, Xu R, Ma C, Yu J, Lei S, Han Q, Wang H. (2023b). Potential functions of engineered nanomaterials in cadmium remediation in soil-plant system: a review. Environmental Pollution, 336: 122340

[65] Li Y, Zhao H P, Zhu L. (2021). Remediation of soil contaminated with organic compounds by nanoscale zero-valent iron: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 760: 143413

[66] LiZ, LowryG V, FanJ, LiuF, ChenJ (2018b). High molecular weight components of natural organic matter preferentially adsorb onto nanoscale zero valent iron and magnetite. Science of the Total Environment, 628–629: 177–185

[67] Lin D, Xing B. (2008). Root uptake and phytotoxicity of ZnO nanoparticles. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(15): 5580–5585

[68] Liu D, Wang Y, He T, Yin D, He S, Zhou X, Xu Y, Liu E. (2023a). Elevated methylmercury production in mercury-contaminated soil and its bioaccumulation in rice: key roles of algal decomposition. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 17(12): 145

[69] Liu T, Guan Z, Li J, Ao M, Sun S, Deng T, Wang S, Tang Y, Lin Q, Ni Z, Qiu R. (2023b). Nano zero-valent iron enhances the absorption and transport of chromium in rice (Oryza sativa L.): Implication for Cr risks management in paddy fields. Science of the Total Environment, 891: 164232

[70] Liu Y, Huang Y, Zhang C, Li W, Chen C, Zhang Z, Chen H, Wang J, Li Y, Zhang Y. (2020). Nano-FeS incorporated into stable lignin hydrogel: a novel strategy for cadmium removal from soil. Environmental Pollution, 264: 114739

[71] Liu Y, Wu T, White J C, Lin D. (2021). A new strategy using nanoscale zero-valent iron to simultaneously promote remediation and safe crop production in contaminated soil. Nature Nanotechnology, 16(2): 197–205

[72] López-Luna J, Camacho-Martinez M M, Solis-Dominguez F A, Gonzalez-Chavez M C, Carrillo-Gonzalez R, Martinez-Vargas S, Mijangos-Ricardez O F, Cuevas-Diaz M C. (2018). Toxicity assessment of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles on wheat plants. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A, 81(14): 604–619

[73] López-Luna J, Silva-Silva M J, Martinez-Vargas S, Mijangos-Ricardez O F, Gonzalez-Chavez M C, Solis-Dominguez F A, Cuevas-Diaz M C. (2016). Magnetite nanoparticle (NP) uptake by wheat plants and its effect on cadmium and chromium toxicological behavior. Science of the Total Environment, 565: 941–950

[74] Lü H X, Wei J L, Tang G X, Chen Y S, Huang Y H, Hu R W, Mo C H, Zhao H M, Xiang L, Li Y W. . (2024). Microbial consortium degrading of organic pollutants: source, degradation efficiency, pathway, mechanism and application. Journal of Cleaner Production, 451: 141913

[75] Lv J, Christie P, Zhang S. (2019). Uptake, translocation, and transformation of metal-based nanoparticles in plants: recent advances and methodological challenges. Environmental Science. Nano, 6(1): 41–59

[76] Mahto R, Singh R K, Ankita J P, Singh R K, Tiwari D K, Vishwakarma A J, Obaidullah A, Gacem K K, Yadav A K. (2024). Evaluation of Brassica species for growth, yield and heat use efficiency under nitrogen nutrition and iron sulphide nanoparticles application. Scientia Horticulturae, 333: 113278

[77] Marcon L, Oliveras J, Puntes V F. (2021). In situ nanoremediation of soils and groundwaters from the nanoparticle’s standpoint: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 791: 148324

[78] Mazarji M, Minkina T, Sushkova S, Mandzhieva S, Bidhendi G N, Barakhov A, Bhatnagar A. (2021). Effect of nanomaterials on remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-contaminated soils: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 284: 112023

[79] Mohammad H G, Malakouti M, Dadpour M, Stroeve P, Mahmoudi M. (2013). Effects of magnetite nanoparticles on soybean chlorophyll. Environmental Science & Technology, 47: 18

[80] Mokarram-Kashtiban S, Hosseini S M, Tabari Kouchaksaraei M, Younesi H. (2019). The impact of nanoparticles zero-valent iron (nZVI) and rhizosphere microorganisms on the phytoremediation ability of white willow and its response. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 26(11): 10776–10789

[81] Ott T, Clarke J, Birks K, Johnson G. (1999). Regulation of the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Planta, 209(2): 250–258

[82] Peng D, Wu B, Tan H, Hou S, Liu M, Tang H, Yu J, Xu H. (2019). Effect of multiple iron-based nanoparticles on availability of lead and iron, and micro-ecology in lead contaminated soil. Chemosphere, 228: 44–53

[83] PengZ, Xiong C, WangW, TanF, XuY, WangX, Qiao X (2017). Facile modification of nanoscale zero-valent iron with high stability for Cr(VI) remediation. Science of the Total Environment, 596–597: 266–273

[84] Powles S B. (1984). Photoinhibition of photosynthesis induced by visible light. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 35(1): 15–44

[85] Qian C C, Wu J, Wang H D, Yang D S, Cui J H. (2023). Metabolomic profiles reveals the dose-dependent effects of rice grain yield and nutritional quality upon exposure zero-valent iron nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment, 879: 163089

[86] Qian W, Liang J Y, Zhang W X, Huang S T, Diao Z H. (2022). A porous biochar supported nanoscale zero-valent iron material highly efficient for the simultaneous remediation of cadmium and lead contaminated soil. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 113: 231–241

[87] Rahman S U, Wang X, Shahzad M, Bashir O, Li Y, Cheng H. (2022). A review of the influence of nanoparticles on the physiological and biochemical attributes of plants with a focus on the absorption and translocation of toxic trace elements. Environmental Pollution, 310: 119916

[88] Rai P, Sharma S, Tripathi S, Prakash V, Tiwari K, Suri S, Sharma S. (2022). Nanoiron: Uptake, translocation and accumulation in plant systems. Plant Nano Biology, 2: 100017

[89] Rizwan M, Ali S, Ali B, Adrees M, Arshad M, Hussain A, Zia Ur Rehman M, Waris A A. (2019). Zinc and iron oxide nanoparticles improved the plant growth and reduced the oxidative stress and cadmium concentration in wheat. Chemosphere, 214: 269–277

[90] RizwanM, Ali S, QayyumM F, OkY S, AdreesM, IbrahimM, Zia-Ur-Rehman M, FaridM, AbbasF (2017). Effect of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles on growth and physiology of globally important food crops: a critical review. Journal of Hazardous materials, 322(Pt A): 2–16

[91] Rui M, Ma C, Hao Y, Guo J, Rui Y, Tang X, Zhao Q, Fan X, Zhang Z, Hou T, Zhu S. (2016). Iron oxide nanoparticles as a potential iron fertilizer for peanut (Arachis hypogaea). Frontiers in Plant Science, 7: 815

[92] Shankramma K, Yallappa S, Shivanna M B, Manjanna J. (2016). Fe₂O₃ magnetic nanoparticles to enhance S. lycopersicum (tomato) plant growth and their biomineralization. Applied Nanoscience, 6(7): 983–990

[93] Shen Z T, Li Z, Alessi D S. (2018). Stabilization-based soil remediation should consider long-term challenges. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 12(2): 16

[94] Singh H P, Mahajan P, Kaur S, Batish D R, Kohli R K. (2013). Chromium toxicity and tolerance in plants. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 11(3): 229–254

[95] Suanon F, Sun Q, Li M Y, Cai X, Zhang Y C, Yan Y J, Yu C P. (2017). Application of nanoscale zero valent iron and iron powder during sludge anaerobic digestion: impact on methane yield and pharmaceutical and personal care products degradation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 321: 47–53

[96] Sun J, Pan L, Tsang D C W, Zhan Y, Zhu L, Li X. (2018). Organic contamination and remediation in the agricultural soils of China: a critical review. Science of the Total Environment, 615: 724–740

[97] Sun Q H, Li J, Wang C, Chen A Q, You Y L, Yang S P, Liu H H, Jiang G B, Wu Y N, Li Y S. (2022). Research progress on distribution, sources, identification, toxicity, and biodegradation of microplastics in the ocean, freshwater, and soil environment. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 16(1): 1

[98] Sun S, Huang J Q, Wen J, Peng Z, Zhang N, Wang Y A, Zhang Y, Su S M, Zeng X B. (2024). Sepiolite-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron alleviates Cd&As accumulation in rice by reducing Cd&As bioavailability in paddy soil and promoting Cd&As sequestration in iron plaque. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 33: 103540

[99] Tighe-Neira R, Gonzalez-Villagra J, Nunes-Nesi A, Inostroza-Blancheteau C. (2022). Impact of nanoparticles and their ionic counterparts derived from heavy metals on the physiology of food crops. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 172: 14–23

[100] TombulogluH, Slimani Y, AlshammariT M, BargoutiM, Ozdemir M, TombulogluG, AkhtarS, SabitH, HakeemK R, Almessiere M, et al. (2020). Uptake, translocation, and physiological effects of hematite (alpha-Fe₂O₃) nanoparticles in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Environmental Pollution, 266(Pt 1): 115391

[101] Tombuloglu H, Slimani Y, AlShammari T M, Tombuloglu G, Almessiere M A, Sozeri H, Baykal A, Ercan I. (2021). Delivery, fate and physiological effect of engineered cobalt ferrite nanoparticles in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Chemosphere, 265: 129138

[102] Tripathi R D, Tripathi P, Dwivedi S, Kumar A, Mishra A, Chauhan P S, Norton G J, Nautiyal C S. (2014). Roles for root iron plaque in sequestration and uptake of heavy metals and metalloids in aquatic and wetland plants. Metallomics, 6(10): 1789–1800

[103] Trujillo-ReyesJ, MajumdarS, BotezC E, Peralta-VideaJ R, Gardea-TorresdeyJ L (2014). Exposure studies of core-shell Fe/Fe₃O₄ and Cu/CuO NPs to lettuce (Lactuca sativa) plants: Are they a potential physiological and nutritional hazard? Journal of Hazardous Materials, 267: 255–263

[104] Wang C B, Zhang W X. (1997). Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environmental Science & Technology, 31(7): 2154–2156

[105] Wang H, Kou X, Pei Z, Xiao J Q, Shan X, Xing B. (2011). Physiological effects of magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and pumpkin (Cucurbita mixta) plants. Nanotoxicology, 5(1): 30–42

[106] Wang J, Fang Z, Cheng W, Yan X, Tsang P E, Zhao D. (2016a). Higher concentrations of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) in soil induced rice chlorosis due to inhibited active iron transportation. Environmental Pollution, 210: 338–345

[107] Wang P, Lombi E, Zhao F J, Kopittke P M. (2016b). Nanotechnology: a new opportunity in plant sciences. Trends in Plant Science, 21(8): 699–712

[108] Wang Q, Zhang P, Zhao W, Li Y, Jiang Y, Rui Y, Guo Z, Lynch I. (2023). Interplay of metal-based nanoparticles with plant rhizosphere microenvironment: implications for nanosafety and nano-enabled sustainable agriculture. Environmental Science. Nano, 10(2): 372–392

[109] Wang S S, Zhao M Y, Zhou M, Li Y C C, Wang J, Gao B, Sato S, Feng K, Yin W Q, Igalavithana A D. . (2019a). Biochar-supported nZVI (nZVI/BC) for contaminant removal from soil and water: a critical review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 373: 820–834

[110] Wang Y, Chen S, Deng C, Shi X, Cota-Ruiz K, White J C, Zhao L, Gardea-Torresdey J L. (2021a). Metabolomic analysis reveals dose-dependent alteration of maize (Zea mays L.) metabolites and mineral nutrient profiles upon exposure to zerovalent iron nanoparticles. NanoImpact, 23: 100336

[111] Wang Y, Liu Y, Su G, Yang K, Lin D. (2021b). Transformation and implication of nanoparticulate zero valent iron in soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 412: 125207

[112] Wang Y, Yang K, Chefetz B, Xing B, Lin D. (2019b). The pH and concentration dependent interfacial interaction and heteroaggregation between nanoparticulate zero-valent iron and clay mineral particles. Environmental Science. Nano, 6(7): 2129–2140

[113] Wang Y, Yang K, Lin D. (2020). Nanoparticulate zero valent iron interaction with dissolved organic matter impacts iron transformation and organic carbon stability. Environmental Science. Nano, 7(6): 1818–1830

[114] Wang Y F, Zhang C L, Lin D H, Zhang J Y. (2025). Metabolomic and gut-microbial responses of earthworms exposed to microcystins and nano zero-valent iron in soil. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 150: 340–348

[115] Wang Y L, Lin D H. (2017). The interaction between nano zero-valent iron and soil components and its environmental implication the interaction between nano zero-valent iron and soil components and its environmental implication. Progress in Chemistry Progress in Chemistry, 29(9): 1072–1081

[116] Wen M, Ma Z, Gingerich D B, Zhao X, Zhao D. (2022). Heavy metals in agricultural soil in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eco-Environment & Health, 1(4): 219–228

[117] Wu S, Cajthaml T, Semerád J, Filipová A, Klementová M, Skála R, Vítková M, Michálková Z, Teodoro M, Wu Z. . (2019). Nano zero-valent iron aging interacts with the soil microbial community: a microcosm study. Environmental Science. Nano, 6(4): 1189–1206

[118] Wu S, Vosátka M, Vogel-Mikus K, Kavčič A, Kelemen M, Šepec L, Pelicon P, Skála R, Valero Powter A R, Teodoro M. . (2018). Nano zero-valent iron mediated metal(loid) uptake and translocation by arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(14): 7640–7651

[119] Wu S, Xiang Z, Lin D, Zhu L. (2023a). Multimedia distribution and health risk assessment of typical organic pollutants in a retired industrial park. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 17(11): 142

[120] Wu T, Liao X, Zou Y, Liu Y, Yang K, White J C, Lin D. (2022). Fe-based nanomaterial transformation to amorphous Fe: Enhanced alfalfa rhizoremediation of PCBs-contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 425: 127973

[121] Wu T, Liu Y, Yang K, Zhu L, White J C, Lin D. (2021). Synergistic remediation of PCB-contaminated soil with nanoparticulate zero-valent iron and alfalfa: targeted changes in the root metabolite-dependent microbial community. Environmental Science. Nano, 8(4): 986–999

[122] Wu T, Liu Y, Zheng T, Dai Y, Li Z, Lin D. (2023b). Fe-Based nanomaterials and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria synergistically degrade polychlorinated biphenyls by producing extracellular reactive oxygen species. Environmental Science & Technology, 57(34): 12771–12781

[123] Xie P, Guo Y, Chen Y, Wang Z, Shang R, Wang S, Ding J, Wan Y, Jiang W, Ma J. (2017). Application of a novel advanced oxidation process using sulfite and zero-valent iron in treatment of organic pollutants. Chemical Engineering Journal, 314: 240–248

[124] Xingmao M, Gurung A, Yang D. (2013). Phytotoxicity and uptake of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) by two plant species. Science of the Total Environment, 443: 844–849

[125] Xu B, Chen J Y, Hu Y B, You Y L, Sun X C, Yu J Y, Guo X D, Hu C, Chen C L, Chen Y H, Wang G. (2024). Influence of FeSO₄, nano zero-valent iron, and their CaCO₃ composites on the formation of iron plaque and cadmium translocation in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Environmental Pollutants and Bioavailability, 36(1): 2368588

[126] Xu J B, Wang Y L, Luo X S, Feng Y Z. (2017). Influence of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth and soil bacterial community structure. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 28(9): 3003–3010

[127] XueW, CaoS, ZhuJ, LiW, LiJ, HuangD, WangR, Gao Y (2022). Stabilization of cadmium in contaminated sediment based on a nanoremediation strategy: environmental impacts and mechanisms. Chemosphere, 287(Pt 3): 132363

[128] Xue W, Huang D, Zeng G, Wan J, Cheng M, Zhang C, Hu C, Li J. (2018). Performance and toxicity assessment of nanoscale zero valent iron particles in the remediation of contaminated soil: a review. Chemosphere, 210: 1145–1156

[129] Xue W J, Li J, Chen X Y, Liu H D, Wen S Q, Shi X Y, Guo J M, Gao Y, Xu J, Xu Y Q. (2023). Recent advances in sulfidized nanoscale zero-valent iron materials for environmental remediation and challenges. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 30(46): 101933–101962

[130] Yan L, Li P, Zhao X, Ji R, Zhao L. (2020). Physiological and metabolic responses of maize (Zea mays) plants to Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment, 718: 137400

[131] Yang X, Alidoust D, Wang C. (2020). Effects of iron oxide nanoparticles on the mineral composition and growth of soybean (Glycine max L.) plants. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 42(8): 128

[132] Yang Y M, Naseer M, Zhu Y, Zhu S G, Wang S, Wang B Z, Wang J, Zhu H, Wang W, Tao H Y, Xiong Y C. (2022). Dual effects of nZVI on maize growth and water use are positively mediated by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi via rhizosphere interactions. Environmental Pollution, 308: 119661

[133] Yoon H, Kang Y G, Chang Y S, Kim J H. (2019). Effects of zerovalent iron nanoparticles on photosynthesis and biochemical adaptation of soil-grown Arabidopsis thaliana. Nanomaterials, 9(11): 1543

[134] Yuan J, Chen Y, Li H, Lu J, Zhao H, Liu M, Nechitaylo G S, Glushchenko N N. (2018). New insights into the cellular responses to iron nanoparticles in Capsicum annuum. Scientific Reports, 8(1): 3228

[135] Zahra N, Hafeez M B, Shaukat K, Wahid A, Hasanuzzaman M. (2021). Fe toxicity in plants: impacts and remediation. Physiologia Plantarum, 173(1): 201–222

[136] Zhang J Y, Zhou H, Gu J F, Huang F, Yang W J, Wang S L, Yuan T Y, Liao B H. (2020a). Effects of nano-Fe₃O₄-modified biochar on iron plaque formation and Cd accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Environmental Pollution, 260: 113970

[137] Zhang J Y, Zhou H, Zeng P, Wang S L, Yang W J, Huang F, Huo Y, Yu S N, Gu J F, Liao B H. (2021). Nano-Fe₃O₄-modified biochar promotes the formation of iron plaque and cadmium immobilization in rice root. Chemosphere, 276: 130212

[138] Zhang P, Guo Z, Zhang Z, Fu H, White J C, Lynch I. (2020b). Nanomaterial transformation in the soil-plant system: implications for food safety and application in agriculture. Small, 16(21): 2000705

[139] Zhang Q, Yuan P, Liang W, Qiao Z, Shao X, Zhang W, Peng C. (2022a). Exogenous iron alters uptake and translocation of CuO nanoparticles in soil-rice system: a life cycle study. Environment International, 168: 107479

[140] Zhang S, Yi K, Chen A, Shao J, Peng L, Luo S. (2022b). Toxicity of zero-valent iron nanoparticles to soil organisms and the associated defense mechanisms: a review. Ecotoxicology, 31(6): 873–883

[141] Zhao L, Bai T, Wei H, Gardea-Torresdey J L, Keller A, White J C. (2022). Nanobiotechnology-based strategies for enhanced crop stress resilience. Nature Food, 3(10): 829–836

[142] Zhao Q, Li X, Xiao S, Peng W, Fan W. (2021). Integrated remediation of sulfate reducing bacteria and nano zero valent iron on cadmium contaminated sediments. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 406: 124680

[143] Zhao X, Liu W, Cai Z, Han B, Qian T, Zhao D. (2016). An overview of preparation and applications of stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles for soil and groundwater remediation. Water Research, 100: 245–266

[144] Zheng T, Zhou Q, Tao Z, Ouyang S. (2023). Magnetic iron-based nanoparticles biogeochemical behavior in soil-plant system: a critical review. Science of the Total Environment, 904: 166643

[145] Zhou D M, Jin S Y, Wang Y J, Wang P, Weng N Y, Wang Y. (2012). Assessing the impact of iron-based nanoparticles on pH, dissolved organic carbon, and nutrient availability in soils. Soil & Sediment Contamination, 21(1): 101–114

[146] Zhou P, Zhang P, He M, Cao Y, Adeel M, Shakoor N, Jiang Y, Zhao W, Li Y, Li M. . (2023a). Iron-based nanomaterials reduce cadmium toxicity in rice (Oryza sativa L.) by modulating phytohormones, phytochelatin, cadmium transport genes and iron plaque formation. Environmental Pollution, 320: 121063

[147] Zhou P F, Zhang P, He M K, Cao Y, Adeel M, Shakoor N, Jiang Y Q, Zhao W C, Li Y B, Li M S. . (2023b). Iron-based nanomaterials reduce cadmium toxicity in rice (Oryz sativa L.) by modulating phytohormones, phytochelatin, cadmium transport genes and iron plaque formation. Environmental Pollution, 320: 121063

[148] Zhu H, Han J, Xiao J Q, Jin Y. (2008). Uptake, translocation, and accumulation of manufactured iron oxide nanoparticles by pumpkin plants. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 10(6): 713–717

[149] Zhu S Y, Chen M J, Dai H W, Tian T, Pan W Y, Xu J, Lin D H. (2024). Safe production of rice in Cd-polluted paddy fields by rhizosphere application of zero-valent iron nanoplates at specific growth stages. Nano Today, 56: 102289

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 52279051 and 52261145701), the 2115 Talent Development Program of China Agricultural University (No. 109018), and the Chinese Universities Scientific Fund (No. 2024TC027).

Conflict Interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-025-1947-1 and is accessible for authorized users.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 Higher Education Press 2025