High doses of polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride microplastics affect the microbial community and nutrient status of vineyard soils

Abstract

The escalating use of plastic materials in viticulture causes release of microplastics (MPs) into vineyard soils. This study examines the impact on soil health of polypropylene (PP) raffia and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube strings, commonly mulched into the topsoil after use. A 120-d incubation experiment was conducted with soils exposed to high doses (10 g/kg) of microplastics (MPs) from standard, new and used strings. The study investigated alterations in the microbial community, bioavailability of macronutrients (NH₄⁺ and NO₃^–, P, K, Ca, Mg), and bioavailability of micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mg). The presence of MPs significantly stressed the soil microbial community, reducing microbial biomass by 30% after 30 d, with the exception of PVC in acid soil, which caused an unexpected increase of about 60%. The metabolic quotient (qCO₂) doubled in MP-polluted soils, with PVC exerting a more pronounced effect than PP. Basal respiration increased by 25% relative to the acid control soil. PVC MPs raised soil pH from 6.2 to 7.2 and firmly reduced the bioavailability of micronutrients, particularly in acidic soils, and led to a 98% reduction in nitrate (NO₃^–). The availability of NH₄⁺, P, K, Mg decreased by 10% and Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn by 30%. However, Ca availability increased by 30%, despite shifting from the acid-soluble fraction to soil organic matter and crystalline minerals. Calcareous soil was generally more resilient to changes than the acid soil. These findings underscore the urgent need to investigate the long-term effects of MPs from viticulture on soil properties and health.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Microplastics / Soil / Nutrient bioavailability / Microbial community / Viticulture

Highlight

	● Viticultural string PVC MPs increased soil pH in the acid soil.
	● PVC MPs disrupt soil microbes and reduce availability of nitrate by 98%.
	● Calcareoussoilsshowedgreater resilience to MPs impacts than acidic soils.
	● Nutrient availability dropped by 10% for NH4+, P, K, Mg, Cu, and 30% for Fe, Mn, Zn.
	● Microplastics from used strings have greater impact than new polymers.

References

[1] An Q, Zhou T, Wen C, Yan C. (2023). The effects of microplastics on heavy metals bioavailability in soils: a meta-analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 460: 132369

[2] Anderson J P E, Domsch K H. (1978). A physiological method for the quantitative measurement of microbial biomass in soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 10(3): 215–221

[3] Anderson T H, Domsch K H. (1993). The metabolic quotient for CO₂ (qCO₂) as a specific activity parameter to assess the effects of environmental conditions, such as pH, on the microbial biomass of forest soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 25(3): 393–395

[4] Aralappanavar V K, Mukhopadhyay R, Yu Y, Liu J, Bhatnagar A, Praveena S M, Li Y, Paller M, Adyel T M, Rinklebe J. . (2024). Effects of microplastics on soil microorganisms and microbial functions in nutrients and carbon cycling: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 924: 171435

[5] AwetT T, Kohl Y, MeierF, StraskrabaS, Grün A L, RufT, JostC, DrexelR, TuncE, Emmerling C (2018). Effects of polystyrene nanoparticles on the microbiota and functional diversity of enzymes in soil. Environmental Sciences Europe, 30

[6] Barili S, Bernetti A, Sannino C, Montegiove N, Calzoni E, Cesaretti A, Pinchuk I, Pezzolla D, Turchetti B, Buzzini P. . (2023). Impact of PVC microplastics on soil chemical and microbiological parameters. Environmental Research, 229: 115891

[7] Blöcker L, Watson C, Wichern F. (2020). Living in the plastic age: different short-term microbial response to microplastics addition to arable soils with contrasting soil organic matter content and farm management legacy. Environmental Pollution, 267: 115468

[8] Brown G A, Elliott H A. (1992). Influence of electrolytes on EDTA extraction of Pb from polluted soil. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 62(1−2): 157–165

[9] Campbell C D, Chapman S J, Cameron C M, Davidson M S, Potts J M. (2003). A rapid microtiter plate method to measure carbon dioxide evolved from carbon substrate amendments so as to determine the physiological profiles of soil microbial communities by using whole soil. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69(6): 3593–3599

[10] Cao L, Wu D, Liu P, Hu W, Xu L, Sun Y, Wu Q, Tian K, Huang B, Yoon S J. . (2021). Occurrence, distribution and affecting factors of microplastics in agricultural soils along the lower reaches of Yangtze River, China. Science of the Total Environment, 794: 148694

[11] Chen X, Chen X, Zhao Y, Zhou H, Xiong X, Wu C. (2020). Effects of microplastic biofilms on nutrient cycling in simulated freshwater systems. Science of the Total Environment, 719: 137276

[12] Chen X, Gu X, Bao L, Ma S, Mu Y. (2021). Comparison of adsorption and desorption of triclosan between microplastics and soil particles. Chemosphere, 263: 127947

[13] Chia R W, Lee J Y, Jang J, Kim H, Kwon K D. (2022). Soil health and microplastics: a review of the impacts of microplastic contamination on soil properties. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 22(10): 2690–2705

[14] Christl I. (2012). Ionic strength- and pH-dependence of calcium binding by terrestrial humic acids. Environmental Chemistry, 9(1): 89–96

[15] Colombini G, Rumpel C, Houot S, Biron P, Dignac M F. (2022). A long-term field experiment confirms the necessity of improving biowaste sorting to decrease coarse microplastic inputs in compost amended soils. Environmental Pollution, 315: 120369

[16] Colzi I, Renna L, Bianchi E, Castellani M B, Coppi A, Pignattelli S, Loppi S, Gonnelli C. (2022). Impact of microplastics on growth, photosynthesis and essential elements in Cucurbita pepo L. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 423: 127238

[17] Dar S U, Wu Z, Zhang L, Yu P, Qin Y, Shen Y, Zou Y, Poh L, Eichen Y, Achmon Y. (2022). On the quest for novel bio-degradable plastics for agricultural field mulching. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 10: 922974

[18] de Souza Machado A A, Lau C W, Kloas W, Bergmann J, Bachelier J B, Faltin E, Becker R, Görlich A S, Rillig M C. (2019). Microplastics can change soil properties and affect plant performance. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(10): 6044–6052

[19] ECHA . (2019). . ,

[20] Esterhuizen M, Kim Y J. (2022). Effects of polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polyurethane, high-density polyethylene, and polystyrene microplastic on Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) in water and sediment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 29(12): 17580–17590

[21] Fei Y, Huang S, Zhang H, Tong Y, Wen D, Xia X, Wang H, Luo Y, Barceló D. (2020). Response of soil enzyme activities and bacterial communities to the accumulation of microplastics in an acid cropped soil. Science of the Total Environment, 707: 135634

[22] Feng X, Wang Q, Sun Y, Zhang S, Wang F. (2022). Microplastics change soil properties, heavy metal availability and bacterial community in a Pb-Zn-contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 424: 127364

[23] Frias J P G L, Nash R. (2019). Microplastics: finding a consensus on the definition. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 138: 145–147

[24] Groffman P M. (2012). Terrestrial denitrification: challenges and opportunities. Ecological Processes, 1(1): 1–11

[25] Huang D, Wang X, Yin L, Chen S, Tao J, Zhou W, Chen H, Zhang G, Xiao R. (2022). Research progress of microplastics in soil-plant system: ecological effects and potential risks. Science of the Total Environment, 812: 151487

[26] Jia W, Karapetrova A, Zhang M, Xu L, Li K, Huang M, Wang J, Huang Y. (2022). Automated identification and quantification of invisible microplastics in agricultural soils. Science of the Total Environment, 844: 156853

[27] Khaledian Y, Brevik E C, Pereira P, Cerdà A, Fattah M A, Tazikeh H. (2017). Modeling soil cation exchange capacity in multiple countries. Catena, 158: 194–200

[28] Khan A, Jie Z, Wang J, Nepal J, Ullah N, Zhao Z Y, Wang P Y, Ahmad W, Khan A, Wang W. . (2023a). Ecological risks of microplastics contamination with green solutions and future perspectives. Science of the Total Environment, 899: 165688

[29] Khan M A, Huang Q, Khan S, Wang Q, Huang J, Fahad S, Sajjad M, Liu Y, Mašek O, Li X. . (2023b). Abundance, spatial distribution, and characteristics of microplastics in agricultural soils and their relationship with contributing factors. Journal of Environmental Management, 328: 117006

[30] Kim S K, Kim J S, Lee H, Lee H J. (2021a). Abundance and characteristics of microplastics in soils with different agricultural practices: importance of sources with internal origin and environmental fate. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 403: 123997

[31] Kim S W, Jeong S W, An Y J. (2021b). Microplastics disrupt accurate soil organic carbon measurement based on chemical oxidation method. Chemosphere, 276: 130178

[32] Klaus J, Seeger M, Bigalke M, Weber C J. (2024). Microplastics in vineyard soils: first insights from plastic-intensive viticulture systems. Science of the Total Environment, 947: 174699

[33] Li H, Liu L. (2022). Short-term effects of polyethene and polypropylene microplastics on soil phosphorus and nitrogen availability. Chemosphere, 291: 132984

[34] Li J, Yu Y, Zhang Z, Cui M. (2023). The positive effects of polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride microplastics on agricultural soil quality. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 23(3): 1304–1314

[35] Liang R, Sun F, Zhang C, Zhang R, Wang H, Wang X. (2023). Interaction between microplastics and microorganisms in soil environment: a review. Chinese Journal of Biotechnology, 39: 500–515

[36] Lindsay W L, Norvell W. (1978). Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 42(3): 421–428

[37] Liu H, Yang X, Liu G, Liang C, Xue S, Chen H, Ritsema C J, Geissen V. (2017). Response of soil dissolved organic matter to microplastic addition in Chinese loess soil. Chemosphere, 185: 907–917

[38] Liu Y, Cui W, Li W, Xu S, Sun Y, Xu G, Wang F. (2023). Effects of microplastics on cadmium accumulation by rice and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in cadmium-contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 442: 130102

[39] Lozano Y M, Lehnert T, Linck L T, Lehmann A, Rillig M C. (2021). Microplastic shape, polymer type, and concentration affect soil properties and plant biomass. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12: 616645

[40] Miao L, Wang C, Adyel T M, Wu J, Liu Z, You G, Meng M, Qu H, Huang L, Yu Y. . (2020). Microbial carbon metabolic functions of biofilms on plastic debris influenced by the substrate types and environmental factors. Environment International, 143: 106007

[41] Moreno-Jiménez E, Leifheit E F, Plaza C, Feng L, Bergmann J, Wulf A, Lehmann A, Rillig M C. (2022). Effects of microplastics on crop nutrition in fertile soils and interaction with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, 1(1): 66–72

[42] MulvaneyRL (1996). “Nitrogen—Inorganic Forms,” in Methods of Soil Analysis. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[43] OlsenS R (1954). Estimation of Available Phosphorus in Soils by Extraction with Sodium Bicarbonate. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture

[44] Papassiopi N, Tambouris S, Kontopoulos A. (1999). Removal of heavy metals from calcareous contaminated soils by EDTA leaching. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 109(1−4): 1–15

[45] Patil R, Bagde U S. (2012). Isolation of polyvinyl chloride degrading bacterial strains from environmental samples using enrichment culture technique. African Journal of Biotechnology, 11(31): 7947–7956

[46] Pignattelli S, Broccoli A, Renzi M. (2020). Physiological responses of garden cress (L. sativum) to different types of microplastics. Science of the Total Environment, 727: 138609

[47] Plastics EuropeA I S B L (2023). Plastics – the Fast Facts 2023 Plastics Europe. Brussels: Plastics Europe

[48] PrusT, Kralj T, VrščajB, ZupanM, Grčman H (2015). Slovenska klasifikacija tal. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani (in Slovenian)

[49] R Development Core Team (2018) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing

[50] Rauret G, López-Sánchez J, Sahuquillo A, Rubio R, Davidson C, Ure A, Quevauviller P. (1999). Improvement of the BCR three step sequential extraction procedure prior to the certification of new sediment and soil reference materials. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 1(1): 57–61

[51] Rillig M C. (2018). Microplastic disguising as soil carbon storage. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(11): 6079–6080

[52] Riveros G, Urrutia H, Araya J, Zagal E, Schoebitz M. (2022). Microplastic pollution on the soil and its consequences on the nitrogen cycle: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 29(6): 7997–8011

[53] Rong L, Zhao L, Zhao L, Cheng Z, Yao Y, Yuan C, Wang L, Sun H. (2021). LDPE microplastics affect soil microbial communities and nitrogen cycling. Science of the Total Environment, 773: 145640

[54] Shen H, Sun Y, Duan H, Ye J, Zhou A, Meng H, Zhu F, He H, Gu C. (2023). Effect of PVC microplastics on soil microbial community and nitrogen availability under laboratory-controlled and field-relevant temperatures. Applied Soil Ecology, 184: 104794

[55] Shnawa H A, Jahani Y, Khalaf M N, Taobi A H. (2016). The potential of tannins as thermal co-stabilizer additive for polyvinyl chloride. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 123(2): 1253–1261

[56] SiStat (2024). Površina in število nasadov, vinorodne dežele, Slovenija, po letih. Ljubljana: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia ,(in Slovenian)

[57] Sun Y, Ren X, Pan J, Zhang Z, Tsui T H, Luo L, Wang Q. (2020). Effect of microplastics on greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions during aerobic composting. Science of the Total Environment, 737: 139856

[58] Szili-Kovács T, Takács T. (2024). Microbial biomass and rhizosphere soil properties in response to heavy metal-contaminated flooding. Agriculture, 14(5): 756

[59] Tourinho P S, Kočí V, Loureiro S, van Gestel C A M. (2019). Partitioning of chemical contaminants to microplastics: sorption mechanisms, environmental distribution and effects on toxicity and bioaccumulation. Environmental Pollution, 252: 1246–1256

[60] USEPA 3052 (1995). Method 3052: Microwave Assisted Acid Digestion of Sediments, Sludges, and Oils. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

[61] Vázquez F A, Pérez Cid B, Río Segade S. (2016). Assessment of metal bioavailability in the vineyard soil-grapevine system using different extraction methods. Food Chemistry, 208: 199–208

[62] Vox G, Loisi R V, Blanco I, Mugnozza G S, Schettini E. (2016). Mapping of agriculture plastic waste. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia, 8: 583–591

[63] Wang F, Wang Q, Adams C A, Sun Y, Zhang S. (2022). Effects of microplastics on soil properties: current knowledge and future perspectives. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 424: 127531

[64] Wang P Y, Zhao Z Y, Xiong X B, Wang N, Zhou R, Zhang Z M, Ding F, Hao M, Wang S, Ma Y. . (2023). Microplastics affect soil bacterial community assembly more by their shapes rather than the concentrations. Water Research, 245: 120581

[65] Wang Q Y, Sun J Y, Xu X J, Yu H W. (2020). Distribution and availability of fungicide-derived copper in soil aggregates. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 20(2): 816–823

[66] Wang W, Dalal R, Moody P, Smith C. (2003). Relationships of soil respiration to microbial biomass, substrate availability and clay content. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 35(2): 273–284

[67] Wen X, Yin L, Zhou Z, Kang Z, Sun Q, Zhang Y, Long Y, Nie X, Wu Z, Jiang C. (2022). Microplastics can affect soil properties and chemical speciation of metals in yellow-brown soil. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 243: 113958

[68] WhiteR E (2003). Soils for Fine Wines. New York: Oxford University Press

[69] Yan Y, Chen Z, Zhu F, Zhu C, Wang C, Gu C. (2021). Effect of polyvinyl chloride microplastics on bacterial community and nutrient status in two agricultural soils. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 107(4): 602–609

[70] Yang M, Huang D Y, Tian Y B, Zhu Q H, Zhang Q, Zhu H H, Xu C. (2021). Influences of different source microplastics with different particle sizes and application rates on soil properties and growth of Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis L.). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 222: 112480

[71] Yi M, Zhou S, Zhang L, Ding S. (2021). The effects of three different microplastics on enzyme activities and microbial communities in soil. Water Environment Research, 93(1): 24–32

[72] Yu H, Hou J, Dang Q, Cui D, Xi B, Tan W. (2020). Decrease in bioavailability of soil heavy metals caused by the presence of microplastics varies across aggregate levels. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 395: 122690

[73] Yu H, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Fan P, Xi B, Tan W. (2021). Metal type and aggregate microenvironment govern the response sequence of speciation transformation of different heavy metals to microplastics in soil. Science of the Total Environment, 752: 141956

[74] Yu Y, Battu A K, Varga T, Denny A C, Zahid T, Chowdhury I, Flury M. (2023). Minimal impacts of microplastics on soil physical properties under environmentally relevant concentrations. Environmental Science & Technology, 57(13): 5296–5304

[75] Zak J C, Willig M R, Moorhead D L, Wildman H G. (1994). Functional diversity of microbial communities: a quantitative approach. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 26(9): 1101–1108

[76] Zhang Y, Li X, Xiao M, Feng Z, Yu Y, Yao H. (2022). Effects of microplastics on soil carbon dioxide emissions and the microbial functional genes involved in organic carbon decomposition in agricultural soil. Science of the Total Environment, 806: 150714

[77] ZhaoT, Lozano Y M, RilligM C (2021). Microplastics increase soil pH and decrease microbial activities as a function of microplastic shape, polymer type, and exposure time. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 9

[78] Zhou Y, Jing J, Yu R, Zhao Y, Gou Y, Zhang Z, Tang H, Zhang H, Huang Y. (2023). Microplastics in plateau agricultural areas: spatial changes reveal their source and distribution characteristics. Environmental Pollution, 319: 121006

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s) 2024. This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep.com.cn