A tale of two minerals: contrasting behaviors and mitigation strategies of gypsum scaling and silica scaling in membrane desalination

Highlights

	● Gypsum scaling and silica scaling have distinct formation mechanisms.
	● Gypsum and silica formation lead to distinct kinetics and mineral morphologies.
	● Behaviors of gypsum scaling and silica scaling in desalination are different.
	● Gypsum and silica interact with organic foulants differently.
	● Gypsum scaling and silica scaling require different mitigation strategies.

Abstract

Mineral scaling represents a major constraint that limits the efficiency of membrane desalination, which is becoming increasingly important for achieving sustainable water supplies in the context of a changing climate. Different mineral scales can be formed via distinct mechanisms that lead to a significant variation of scaling behaviors and mitigation strategies. In this article, we present a comprehensive review that thoroughly compares gypsum scaling and silica scaling, which are two common scaling types formed via crystallization and polymerization respectively, in membrane desalination. We show that the differences between scale formation mechanisms greatly affect the thermodynamics, kinetics, and mineral morphology of gypsum scaling and silica scaling. Then we review the literatures on the distinct behaviors of gypsum scaling and silica scaling during various membrane desalination processes, examining their varied damaging effects on desalination efficiency. We further scrutinize the different interactions of gypsum and silica with organic foulants, which result in contrasting consequences of combined scaling and fouling. In addition, the distinctive mitigation strategies tailored to controlling gypsum scaling and silica scaling, including scaling-resistant membrane materials, antiscalants, and pretreatment, are discussed. We conclude this article with the research needs of attaining a better understanding of different mineral scaling types, aiming to inspire researchers to take scale formation mechanism into consideration when developing more effective approaches of scaling control in membrane desalination.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Membrane desalination / Membrane scaling / Gypsum scaling / Silica scaling / Scaling mechanism / Scaling mitigation

Dr. Tiezheng Tong is currently a tenured Associate Professor in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment (SSEBE) at Arizona State University (ASU). Before joining ASU, he was a tenured Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Colorado State University (CSU). He completed a postdoc position in the Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering at Yale University and received his Ph.D. degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering from Northwestern University. Prior to his Ph.D. study, he graduated from Beijing Normal University (with the highest honor) and Tsinghua University with B.S. and M.S. degrees, respectively, both of which are in Environmental Engineering. He has published nearly 80 peer-reviewed journal articles, which have been cited by ~6,000 times globally with an H-index of 37. He is the recipient of many academic and professional awards, including the Super Reviewer Award from Environmental Science & Technology (2024), the James J. Morgan Early Career Award from American Chemical Society (honorable mention, 2024), the George T. Abell Outstanding Early-Career Faculty Award and Faculty Award for Excellence in Research from CSU (2023), the CAPEES/UCEEF Early Career Award from Chinese-American Professors in Environmental Engineering and Science (2023), the CAREER Award from National Science Foundation (2022), the 40 under 40 Award from American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Scientists (2022), ACS ES&T Engineering Best Paper Award (2022), the Young Membrane Scientist Award from North American Membrane Society (2020), a student award from Sustainable Nanotechnology Organization (2013), and Environmental Chemistry Graduate Student Award from American Chemistry Society (2012). He is currently an editorial board member of Journal of Membrane Science and the President-Elect of Chinese-American Professors in Environmental Engineering and Science. His current research interests include (1) achieving energy-efficient treatment of hypersaline brines for circular water economy, (2) elucidating fundamental phenomena at the water-membrane interface, and (3) applying data-driven approaches to promote water sustainability

References

[1] Abada B, Joag S, Alspach B, Bustamante A, Chellam S. (2023). Inorganic and organic silicon fouling of nanofiltration membranes during pilot-scale direct potable reuse. ACS ES&T Engineering, 3(9): 1413–1423

[2] Ali M B S, Hamrouni B, Bouguecha S, Dhahbi M. (2004). Silica removal using ion-exchange resins. Desalination, 167: 273–279

[3] Ang W, Mohammad A W, Benamor A, Hilal N. (2016). Hybrid coagulation–NF membrane processes for brackish water treatment: effect of pH and salt/calcium concentration. Desalination, 390: 25–32

[4] Anis S F, Hashaikeh R, Hilal N. (2019). Reverse osmosis pretreatment technologies and future trends: a comprehensive review. Desalination, 452: 159–195

[5] Antony A, Low J H, Gray S, Childress A E, Le-Clech P, Leslie G. (2011). Scale formation and control in high pressure membrane water treatment systems: a review. Journal of Membrane Science, 383(1−2): 1–16

[6] Badruzzaman M, Subramani A, Decarolis J, Pearce W, Jacangelo J G. (2011). Impacts of silica on the sustainable productivity of reverse osmosis membranes treating low-salinity brackish groundwater. Desalination, 279(1−3): 210–218

[7] Belton D J, Deschaume O, Perry C C. (2012). An overview of the fundamentals of the chemistry of silica with relevance to biosilicification and technological advances. FEBS Journal, 279(10): 1710–1720

[8] Benecke J, Rozova J, Ernst M. (2018). Anti-scale effects of select organic macromolecules on gypsum bulk and surface crystallization during reverse osmosis desalination. Separation and Purification Technology, 198: 68–78

[9] Brown T C, Mahat V, Ramirez J A. (2019). Adaptation to Future Water Shortages in the United States Caused by Population Growth and Climate Change. Earth’s Future, 7(3): 219–234

[10] Bush J A, Vanneste J, Gustafson E M, Waechter C A, Jassby D, Turchi C S, Cath T Y. (2018). Prevention and management of silica scaling in membrane distillation using pH adjustment. Journal of Membrane Science, 554: 366–377

[11] Butt F, Rahman F, Baduruthamal U. (1997). Characterization of foulants by autopsy of RO desalination membranes. Desalination, 114(1): 51–64

[12] Cao T, Rolf J, Wang Z, Violet C, Elimelech M. (2022). Distinct impacts of natural organic matter and colloidal particles on gypsum crystallization. Water Research, 218: 118500

[13] Chen G, Tan L, Xie M, Liu Y, Lin Y, Tan W, Huang M. (2020). Direct contact membrane distillation of refining waste stream from precious metal recovery: chemistry of silica and chromium(III) in membrane scaling. Journal of Membrane Science, 598: 117803

[14] Cheng W, Liu C, Tong T, Epsztein R, Sun M, Verduzco R, Ma J, Elimelech M. (2018). Selective removal of divalent cations by polyelectrolyte multilayer nanofiltration membrane: role of polyelectrolyte charge, ion size, and ionic strength. Journal of Membrane Science, 559: 98–106

[15] Christie K S, Horseman T, Wang R, Su C, Tong T, Lin S. (2022). Gypsum scaling in membrane distillation: impacts of temperature and vapor flux. Desalination, 525: 115499

[16] Christie K S S, Yin Y, Lin S, Tong T. (2020). Distinct behaviors between gypsum and silica scaling in membrane distillation. Environmental Science & Technology, 54(1): 568–576

[17] Dai Z, Zhao Y, Paudyal S, Wang X, Dai C, Ko S, Li W, Kan A T, Tomson M B. (2022). Gypsum scale formation and inhibition kinetics with implications in membrane system. Water Research, 225: 119166

[18] Du X, Zhang Z, Carlson K H, Lee J, Tong T. (2018). Membrane fouling and reusability in membrane distillation of shale oil and gas produced water: effects of membrane surface wettability. Journal of Membrane Science, 567: 199–208

[19] Gabelich C J, Chen W R, Yun T I, Coffey B M, Suffet I H. (2005). The role of dissolved aluminum in silica chemistry for membrane processes. Desalination, 180(1−3): 307–319

[20] Gal J Y, Bollinger J C, Tolosa H, Gache N. (1996). Calcium carbonate solubility: a reappraisal of scale formation and inhibition. Talanta, 43(9): 1497–1509

[21] Gallup D L. (1989). Iron silicate scale formation and inhibition at the Salton Sea geothermal field. Geothermics, 18(1−2): 97–103

[22] Gallup D L. (1997). Aluminum silicate scale formation and inhibition: scale characterization and laboratory experiments. Geothermics, 26(4): 483–499

[23] Gallup D L. (1998). Aluminum silicate scale formation and inhibition: scale solubilities and laboratory and field inhibition tests. Geothermics, 27(4): 485–501

[24] Gebauer D, Völkel A, Cölfen H. (2008). Stable prenucleation calcium carbonate clusters. Science, 322(5909): 1819–1822

[25] Goh P S, Lau W J, Othman M H D, Ismail A F. (2018). Membrane fouling in desalination and its mitigation strategies. Desalination, 425: 130–155

[26] Greenberg S A, Sinclair D. (1955). The polymerization of silicic acid. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 59(5): 435–440

[27] Gryta M. (2011). The influence of magnetic water treatment on CaCO₃ scale formation in membrane distillation process. Separation and Purification Technology, 80(2): 293–299

[28] Guan Y F, Marcos-Hernández M, Lu X, Cheng W, Yu H Q, Elimelech M, Villagrán D. (2019). Silica removal using magnetic iron–aluminum hybrid nanomaterials: measurements, adsorption mechanisms, and implications for silica scaling in reverse osmosis. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(22): 13302–13311

[29] Gunnarsson I, Arnórsson S. (2000). Amorphous silica solubility and the thermodynamic properties of H₄SiO₄ in the range of 0 to 350 °C at P_sat. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 64(13): 2295–2307

[30] Habib S, Weinman S T. (2021). A review on the synthesis of fully aromatic polyamide reverse osmosis membranes. Desalination, 502: 114939

[31] Hao Z, Zhao Z, Wu H, Zha Z, Tian X, Xie L, Zhao S. (2023). Sulfonated reverse osmosis membrane with simultaneous mitigation of silica scaling and organic fouling. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 62(29): 11646–11655

[32] Hilal N, Al-Zoubi H, Mohammad A, Darwish N. (2005). Nanofiltration of highly concentrated salt solutions up to seawater salinity. Desalination, 184(1−3): 315–326

[33] Hingston F, Raupach M. (1967). The reaction between monosilicic acid and aluminium hydroxide. I. Kinetics of adsorption of silicic acid by aluminium hydroxide. Soil Research (Collingwood, Vic.), 5(2): 295–309

[34] Horseman T, Yin Y, Christie K S S, Wang Z, Tong T, Lin S. (2021). Wetting, scaling, and fouling in membrane distillation: state-of-the-art insights on fundamental mechanisms and mitigation strategies. ACS ES&T Engineering, 1(1): 117–140

[35] Hu J, Harandi H B, Chen Y, Zhang L, Yin H, He T. (2023). Anisotropic gypsum scaling of corrugated polyvinylidene fluoride hydrophobic membrane in direct contact membrane distillation. Water Research, 244: 120513

[36] Huang X, Li C, Zuo K, Li Q. (2020). Predominant effect of material surface hydrophobicity on gypsum scale formation. Environmental Science & Technology, 54(23): 15395–15404

[37] Hulett G A, Allen L E. (1902). The solubility of gypsum. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 24(7): 667–679

[38] Jaramillo H, Boo C, Hashmi S M, Elimelech M. (2021). Zwitterionic coating on thin-film composite membranes to delay gypsum scaling in reverse osmosis. Journal of Membrane Science, 618: 118568

[39] Jebur M, Chiao Y H, Matsuyama H, Wickramasinghe S R. (2024). Electrocoagulation as a pretreatment for reverse osmosis for potable water from brackish groundwater. Water Resources and Industry, 31: 100243

[40] Jhaveri J H, Murthy Z V P. (2016). A comprehensive review on anti-fouling nanocomposite membranes for pressure driven membrane separation processes. Desalination, 379: 137–154

[41] Jiang S X, Li Y N, Ladewig B P. (2017). A review of reverse osmosis membrane fouling and control strategies. Science of the Total Environment, 595: 567–583

[42] Kaneda M, Dong D, Chen Y, Zhang X, Xue Y, Bryantsev V S, Elimelech M, Zhong M. (2024). Molecular design of functional polymers for silica scale inhibition. Environmental Science & Technology, 58(1): 871–882

[43] Karanikola V, Boo C, Rolf J, Elimelech M. (2018). Engineered slippery surface to mitigate gypsum scaling in membrane distillation for treatment of hypersaline industrial wastewaters. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(24): 14362–14370

[44] Karthika S, Radhakrishnan T K, Kalaichelvi P. (2016). A review of classical and nonclassical nucleation theories. Crystal Growth & Design, 16(11): 6663–6681

[45] Kempter A, Gaedt T, Boyko V, Nied S, Hirsch K. (2013). New insights into silica scaling on RO-membranes. Desalination and Water Treatment, 51(4−6): 899–907

[46] Kim M M, Au J, Rahardianto A, Glater J, Cohen Y, Gerringer F W, Gabelich C J. (2009). Impact of conventional water treatment coagulants on mineral scaling in RO desalting of brackish water. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 48(6): 3126–3135

[47] Kröger N, Deutzmann R, Sumper M. (1999). Polycationic Peptides from diatom biosilica that direct silica nanosphere formation. Science, 286(5442): 1129–1132

[48] Kröger N, Sandhage K H. (2010). From diatom biomolecules to bioinspired syntheses of silica- and titania-based materials. MRS Bulletin, 35(2): 122–126

[49] Lee S, Kim Y, Hong S. (2018). Treatment of industrial wastewater produced by desulfurization process in a coal-fired power plant via FO-MD hybrid process. Chemosphere, 210: 44–51

[50] Li D, Lin W, Shao R, Shen Y X, Zhu X, Huang X. (2021a). Interaction between humic acid and silica in reverse osmosis membrane fouling process: a spectroscopic and molecular dynamics insight. Water Research, 206: 117773

[51] Li X, Mo Y, Qing W, Shao S, Tang C Y, Li J. (2019). Membrane-based technologies for lithium recovery from water lithium resources: a review. Journal of Membrane Science, 591: 117317

[52] Li X, Wang Z, Han X, Liu Y, Wang C, Yan F, Wang J. (2021b). Regulating the interfacial polymerization process toward high-performance polyamide thin-film composite reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes: a review. Journal of Membrane Science, 640: 119765

[53] Lin N H, Kim M M, Lewis G T, Cohen Y. (2010). Polymer surface nano-structuring of reverse osmosis membranes for fouling resistance and improved flux performance. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 20(22): 4642–4652

[54] Lioliou M G, Paraskeva C A, Koutsoukos P G, Payatakes A C. (2006). Calcium sulfate precipitation in the presence of water-soluble polymers. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 303(1): 164–170

[55] Liu C, Wang W, Yang B, Xiao K, Zhao H. (2021a). Separation, anti-fouling, and chlorine resistance of the polyamide reverse osmosis membrane: from mechanisms to mitigation strategies. Water Research, 195: 116976

[56] Liu L, He H, Wang Y, Tong T, Li X, Zhang Y, He T. (2021b). Mitigation of gypsum and silica scaling in membrane distillation by pulse flow operation. Journal of Membrane Science, 624: 119107

[57] Liu L, Xiao Z, Liu Y, Li X, Yin H, Volkov A, He T. (2021c). Understanding the fouling/scaling resistance of superhydrophobic/omniphobic membranes in membrane distillation. Desalination, 499: 114864

[58] Liu Y H, Bootwala Y Z, Jang G G, Keum J K, Khor C M, Hoek E M, Jassby D, Tsouris C, Mothersbaugh J, Hatzell M C. (2022). Electroprecipitation mechanism enabling silica and hardness removal through aluminum-based electrocoagulation. ACS ES&T Engineering, 2(7): 1200–1210

[59] Llenas L, Martínez-Lladó X, Yaroshchuk A, Rovira M, De Pablo J. (2011). Nanofiltration as pretreatment for scale prevention in seawater reverse osmosis desalination. Desalination and Water Treatment, 36(1−3): 310–318

[60] Lu K G, Huang H. (2019). Dependence of initial silica scaling on the surface physicochemical properties of reverse osmosis membranes during bench-scale brackish water desalination. Water Research, 150: 358–367

[61] Ly Q V, Hu Y, Li J, Cho J, Hur J. (2019). Characteristics and influencing factors of organic fouling in forward osmosis operation for wastewater applications: a comprehensive review. Environment International, 129: 164–184

[62] MacAdam J, Parsons S A. (2004). Calcium carbonate scale formation and control. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 3(2): 159–169

[63] Mauter M S, Fiske P S. (2020). Desalination for a circular water economy. Energy & Environmental Science, 13(10): 3180–3184

[64] Mbogoro M M, Peruffo M, Adobes-Vidal M, Field E L, O’Connell M A, Unwin P R. (2017). Quantitative 3D visualization of the growth of individual gypsum microcrystals: effect of Ca²⁺∶SO₄^2– ratio on kinetics and crystal morphology. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 121(23): 12726–12734

[65] McMahon P B, Böhlke J K, Dahm K, Parkhurst D L, Anning D W, Stanton J S. (2016). Chemical considerations for an updated national assessment of brackish groundwater resources. Ground Water, 54(4): 464–475

[66] Mekonnen M M, Hoekstra A Y. (2016). Four billion people facing severe water scarcity. Science Advances, 2(2): e1500323

[67] Meldrum F C, Sear R P. (2008). Now You See Them. Science, 322(5909): 1802–1803

[68] Mi B, Elimelech M. (2010). Gypsum scaling and cleaning in forward osmosis: measurements and mechanisms. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(6): 2022–2028

[69] Mi B, Elimelech M. (2013). Silica scaling and scaling reversibility in forward osmosis. Desalination, 312: 75–81

[70] Milne N A, O’Reilly T, Sanciolo P, Ostarcevic E, Beighton M, Taylor K, Mullett M, Tarquin A J, Gray S R. (2014). Chemistry of silica scale mitigation for RO desalination with particular reference to remote operations. Water Research, 65: 107–133

[71] Neofotistou E, Demadis K D. (2004). Use of antiscalants for mitigation of silica (SiO₂) fouling and deposition: fundamentals and applications in desalination systems. Desalination, 167: 257–272

[72] Niemann V A, Huck M, Steinrück H G, Toney M F, Tarpeh W A, Bone S E. (2023). X-ray absorption spectroscopy reveals mechanisms of calcium and silicon fouling on reverse osmosis membranes used in wastewater reclamation. ACS ES&T Water, 3(8): 2627–2637

[73] Pandey S R, Jegatheesan V, Baskaran K, Shu L. (2012). Fouling in reverse osmosis (RO) membrane in water recovery from secondary effluent: a review. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 11(2): 125–145

[74] Park S, Saavedra M, Liu X, Li T, Anger B, Tong T. (2024). A comprehensive study on combined organic fouling and gypsum scaling in reverse osmosis: decoupling surface and bulk phenomena. Journal of Membrane Science, 694: 122399

[75] Potts D E, Ahlert R C, Wang S S. (1981). A critical-review of fouling of reverse-osmosis membranes. Desalination, 36(3): 235–264

[76] Preari M, Spinde K, Lazic J, Brunner E, Demadis K D. (2014). Bioinspired insights into silicic acid stabilization mechanisms: the dominant role of polyethylene glycol-induced hydrogen bonding. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 136(11): 4236–4244

[77] Prieto M, Putnis A, Fernandez-Diaz L. (1990). Factors controlling the kinetics of crystallization: supersaturation evolution in a porous medium: application to barite crystallization. Geological Magazine, 127(6): 485–495

[78] Prihasto N, Liu Q F, Kim S H. (2009). Pre-treatment strategies for seawater desalination by reverse osmosis system. Desalination, 249(1): 308–316

[79] Prisciandaro M, Olivieri E, Lancia A, Musmarra D. (2006). Gypsum precipitation from an aqueous solution in the presence of nitrilotrimethylenephosphonic acid. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 45(6): 2070–2076

[80] Prisciandaro M, Olivieri E, Lancia A, Musmarra D. (2009). Gypsum scale control by nitrilotrimethylenephosphonic acid. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 48(24): 10877–10883

[81] Qi Y, Tong T, Zhao S, Zhang W, Wang Z, Wang J. (2020). Reverse osmosis membrane with simultaneous fouling- and scaling-resistance based on multilayered metal-phytic acid assembly. Journal of Membrane Science, 601: 117888

[82] Quay A N, Tong T Z, Hashmi S M, Zhou Y, Zhao S, Elimelech M. (2018). Combined organic fouling and inorganic scaling in reverse osmosis: role of protein-silica interactions. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(16): 9145–9153

[83] Rabizadeh T, Morgan D J, Peacock C L, Benning L G. (2019). Effectiveness of green additives vs poly(acrylic acid) in inhibiting calcium sulfate dihydrate crystallization. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 58(4): 1561–1569

[84] Rabizadeh T, Peacock C L, Benning L G. (2020). Investigating the effectiveness of phosphonate additives in hindering the calcium sulfate dihydrate scale formation. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 59(33): 14970–14980

[85] Rahardianto A, Mccool B C, Cohen Y. (2008). Reverse osmosis desalting of inland brackish water of high gypsum scaling propensity: kinetics and mitigation of membrane mineral scaling. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(12): 4292–4297

[86] Rahman F. (2013). Calcium sulfate precipitation studies with scale inhibitors for reverse osmosis desalination. Desalination, 319: 79–84

[87] Rana D, Matsuura T. (2010). Surface modifications for antifouling membranes. Chemical Reviews, 110(4): 2448–2471

[88] Razmjou A, Asadnia M, Hosseini E, Habibnejad Korayem A, Chen V. (2019). Design principles of ion selective nanostructured membranes for the extraction of lithium ions. Nature Communications, 10(1): 5793

[89] Reiss A G, Gavrieli I, Rosenberg Y O, Reznik I J, Luttge A, Emmanuel S, Ganor J. (2021). Gypsum precipitation under saline conditions: thermodynamics, kinetics, morphology, and size distribution. Minerals, 11(2): 141

[90] Rolf J, Cao T, Huang X, Boo C, Li Q, Elimelech M. (2022). Inorganic scaling in membrane desalination: models, mechanisms, and characterization methods. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(12): 7484–7511

[91] Sheikholeslami R, Al-Mutaz I, Koo T, Young A. (2001). Pretreatment and the effect of cations and anions on prevention of silica fouling. Desalination, 139(1−3): 83–95

[92] Shemer H, Melki-Dabush N, Semiat R. (2019). Removal of silica from brackish water by integrated adsorption/ultrafiltration process. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 26(31): 31623–31631

[93] Shih W Y, Rahardianto A, Lee R W, Cohen Y. (2005). Morphometric characterization of calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) scale on reverse osmosis membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 252(1): 253–263

[94] Shimada K, Tarutani T. (1980). The kinetics of the polymerization of silicic acid. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 53(12): 3488–3491

[95] Shukla J, Mohandas V P, Kumar A. (2008). Effect of pH on the solubility of CaSO₄·2H₂O in aqueous NaCl solutions and physicochemical solution properties at 35 °C. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data, 53(12): 2797–2800

[96] So Y, Lee Y, Kim S, Lee J, Park C. (2023). Role of co-existing ions in the removal of dissolved silica by ceramic nanofiltration membrane. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 53: 103873

[97] Stawski T M, Van Driessche A E S, Besselink R, Byrne E H, Raiteri P, Gale J D, Benning L G. (2019). The structure of CaSO₄ nanorods: the precursor of gypsum. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 123(37): 23151–23158

[98] Stawski T M, Van Driessche A E S, Ossorio M, Diego Rodriguez-Blanco J, Besselink R, Benning L G. (2016). Formation of calcium sulfate through the aggregation of sub-3 nanometre primary species. Nature Communications, 7(1): 11177

[99] Su C, Horseman T, Cao H, Christie K, Li Y, Lin S. (2019). Robust superhydrophobic membrane for membrane distillation with excellent scaling resistance. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(20): 11801–11809

[100] TetraTech(2011). Managing Water in the West: Analysis of Water from Four Wells at the Brackish Groundwater National Desalination Research Facility: Tech. Rep. Washington, DC: US Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation

[101] Tijing L D, Woo Y C, Choi J S, Lee S, Kim S H, Shon H K. (2015). Fouling and its control in membrane distillation: a review. Journal of Membrane Science, 475: 215–244

[102] Tokoro C, Suzuki S, Haraguchi D, Izawa S. (2014). Silicate removal in aluminum hydroxide co-precipitation process. Materials (Basel), 7(2): 1084–1096

[103] Tong T, Liu X, Li T, Park S, Anger B. (2023). A tale of two foulants: the coupling of organic fouling and mineral scaling in membrane desalination. Environmental Science & Technology, 57(18): 7129–7149

[104] Tong T, Wallace A F, Zhao S, Wang Z. (2019a). Mineral scaling in membrane desalination: mechanisms, mitigation strategies, and feasibility of scaling-resistant membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 579: 52–69

[105] Tong T, Zhao S, Boo C, Hashmi S M, Elimelech M. (2017). Relating Silica scaling in reverse osmosis to membrane surface properties. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(8): 4396–4406

[106] Tong T Z, Elimelech M. (2016). The global rise of zero liquid discharge for wastewater management: drivers, technologies, and future directions. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(13): 6846–6855

[107] Tong T Z, Wallace A F, Zhao S, Wang Z. (2019b). Mineral scaling in membrane desalination: mechanisms, mitigation strategies, and feasibility of scaling-resistant membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 579: 52–69

[108] Uchymiak M, Lyster E, Glater J, Cohen Y. (2008). Kinetics of gypsum crystal growth on a reverse osmosis membrane. Journal of Membrane Science, 314(1): 163–172

[109] Van Driessche A E S, Benning L G, Rodriguez-Blanco J D, Ossorio M, Bots P, García-Ruiz J M. (2012). The role and implications of bassanite as a stable precursor phase to gypsum precipitation. Science, 336(6077): 69–72

[110] Vermeulen T, Tleimat B W, Klein G. (1983). Ion-exchange pretreatment for scale prevention in desalting systems. Desalination, 47(1−3): 149–159

[111] Wallace A F, Deyoreo J J, Dove P M. (2009). Kinetics of silica nucleation on carboxyl- and amine-terminated surfaces: insights for biomineralization. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 131(14): 5244–5250

[112] Wang S, Huang X, Elimelech M. (2020a). Complexation between dissolved silica and alginate molecules: implications for reverse osmosis membrane fouling. Journal of Membrane Science, 605: 118109

[113] Wang S, Mu C, Xiao K, Zhu X, Huang X. (2020b). Surface charge regulation of reverse osmosis membrane for anti-silica and organic fouling. Science of the Total Environment, 715: 137013

[114] Weijnen M P C, Van Rosmalen G M. (1985). The influence of various polyelectrolytes on the precipitation of gypsum. Desalination, 54: 239–261

[115] Xiao Z, Li Z, Guo H, Liu Y, Wang Y, Yin H, Li X, Song J, Nghiem L D, He T. (2019a). Scaling mitigation in membrane distillation: from superhydrophobic to slippery. Desalination, 466: 36–43

[116] Xiao Z, Zheng R, Liu Y, He H, Yuan X, Ji Y, Li D, Yin H, Zhang Y, Li X M. . (2019b). Slippery for scaling resistance in membrane distillation: a novel porous micropillared superhydrophobic surface. Water Research, 155: 152–161

[117] Xie M, Gray S R. (2016). Gypsum scaling in forward osmosis: role of membrane surface chemistry. Journal of Membrane Science, 513: 250–259

[118] Xie M, Gray S R. (2017). Silica scaling in forward osmosis: from solution to membrane interface. Water Research, 108: 232–239

[119] YangN (2005). Physical conditioning for scale prevention during desalination by reverse osmosis. Thesis for the Master Degree. Göteborg: Chalmers University of Technology

[120] Yao Y, Ge X, Yin Y, Minjarez R, Tong T. (2023). Antiscalants for mitigating silica scaling in membrane desalination: effects of molecular structure and membrane process. Water Research, 246: 120701

[121] Yin Y, Jeong N, Minjarez R, Robbins C A, Carlson K H, Tong T. (2021). Contrasting behaviors between gypsum and silica scaling in the presence of antiscalants during membrane distillation. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(8): 5335–5346

[122] Yin Y, Jeong N, Tong T. (2020). The effects of membrane surface wettability on pore wetting and scaling reversibility associated with mineral scaling in membrane distillation. Journal of Membrane Science, 614: 118503

[123] Yin Y, Kalam S, Livingston J L, Minjarez R, Lee J, Lin S, Tong T. (2022a). The use of anti-scalants in gypsum scaling mitigation: comparison with membrane surface modification and efficiency in combined reverse osmosis and membrane distillation. Journal of Membrane Science, 643: 120077

[124] Yin Y, Li T, Zuo K, Liu X, Lin S, Yao Y, Tong T. (2022b). Which surface is more scaling resistant? A closer look at nucleation theories for heterogeneous gypsum nucleation in aqueous solutions. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(22): 16315–16324

[125] Yin Y, Wang W, Kota A K, Zhao S, Tong T. (2019). Elucidating mechanisms of silica scaling in membrane distillation: effects of membrane surface wettability. Environmental Science. Water Research & Technology, 5(11): 2004–2014

[126] Yokoyama T, Nakazato T, Tarutani T. (1980). Polymerization of silicic acid adsorbed on iron(III) hydroxide. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 53(4): 850–853

[127] Yu W, Song D, Chen W, Yang H. (2020). Antiscalants in RO membrane scaling control. Water Research, 183: 115985

[128] Zhang L, Zhang R, Ji M, Lu Y, Zhu Y, Jin J. (2021). Polyamide nanofiltration membrane with high mono/divalent salt selectivity via pre-diffusion interfacial polymerization. Journal of Membrane Science, 636: 119478

[129] Zhang R, Liu Y, He M, Su Y, Zhao X, Elimelech M, Jiang Z. (2016). Antifouling membranes for sustainable water purification: strategies and mechanisms. Chemical Society Reviews, 45(21): 5888–5924

[130] Zhang W, Zhang X. (2021). Effective inhibition of gypsum using an ion-ion selective nanofiltration membrane pretreatment process for seawater desalination. Journal of Membrane Science, 632: 119358

[131] Zhang X, Lu M, Idrus M A M, Crombie C, Jegatheesan V. (2019). Performance of precipitation and electrocoagulation as pretreatment of silica removal in brackish water and seawater. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 126: 18–24

[132] Zhao S, Zhao Z, Zhang X, Zha Z, Tong T, Wang R, Wang Z. (2024). Polyamide membranes with tunable surface charge induced by dipole–dipole interaction for selective ion separation. Environmental Science & Technology, 58(11): 5174–5185

[133] Zhao Y, Tong T, Wang X, Lin S, Reid E M, Chen Y. (2021). Differentiating solutes with precise nanofiltration for next generation environmental separations: a review. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(3): 1359–1376

[134] Zhu Z, Zhong L, Horseman T, Liu Z, Zeng G, Li Z, Lin S, Wang W. (2021). Superhydrophobic-omniphobic membrane with anti-deformable pores for membrane distillation with excellent wetting resistance. Journal of Membrane Science, 620: 118768

Acknowledgements

This material was based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation (Nos. 2143970 and 2145627).

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Open Access

This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s) 2025. This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep.com.cn