Response of antibiotic and heavy metal resistance genes to the co-occurrence of gadolinium and sulfamethoxazole in activated sludge systems

Highlights

● Co-occurrence of SMX and Gd(III) enhances HGT of ARGs and MRGs.

● Gd(III) alone negatively impacts ARGs and MRGs proliferation and spread.

● Streptomyces , Pseudomonas and Thauera were abundant in the presence of SMX.

● A positive correlation between internal ARGs and MGEs.

Abstract

With the increasing use of antibiotics and rare earth elements (REE) during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the co-occurrence of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and gadolinium (Gd) has increased in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). However, the effects of SMX and Gd exposure on the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and heavy metal resistance genes (MRGs) remain unknown. This study investigated the impacts of SMX and Gd on the fate of ARGs and MRGs in an activated sludge system. The diversity and relative abundance of ARGs, MRGs, and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) were detected by metagenomic sequencing. The results revealed an increased abundance of ARGs but a decreased abundance of MRGs under the joint effect of SMX and Gd. In addition, Gd alone exerted adverse effects on the proliferation and spread of ARGs and MRGs. However, SMX alone resulted in an increase in the diversity of ARGs and MRGs and promoted the growth of Pseudomonas, Thauera, and Streptomyces in the activated sludge system. Interestingly, a positive correlation was observed between most ARGs and MGEs. These findings provide comprehensive insights into the effects of co-occurring REEs and antibiotics on the fate of ARGs, MRGs, and MGEs, providing evidence to assist in controlling the spread and proliferation of ARGs and MRGs in activated sludge systems.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Antibiotic resistance genes / Heavy metal resistance genes / Mobile genetic elements / Joint effect / Activated sludge system

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Acknowledgements

The work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2019YFC0408500). We thank Home for Researchers editorial team for language editing service.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-023-1754-5 and is accessible for authorized users.

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