Mechanism of ball milled activated carbon in improving the desalination performance of flow- and fixed-electrode in capacitive deionization desalination

Abstract

● BACs were used in electrode material for both fixed and flowing electrodes.

● ASAR of FCDI and MCDI was improved by 134% and 17%, respectively.

● ENRS of FCDI and MCDI was improved by 21% and 53%.

● The mechanism of improving desalination performance was analyzed in detail.

Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a novel electrochemical water-treatment technology. The electrode material is an important factor in determining the ion separation efficiency. Activated carbon (AC) is extensively used as an electrode material; however, there are still many deficiencies in commercial AC. We adopted a simple processing method, ball milling, to produce ball milled AC (BAC) to improve the physical and electrochemical properties of the original AC and desalination efficiency. The BAC was characterized in detail and used for membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) and flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) electrode materials. After ball milling, the BAC obtained excellent pore structures and favorable surfaces for ion adsorption, which reduced electron transfer resistance and ion migration resistance in the electrodes. The optimal ball-milling time was 10 h. However, the improved effects of BAC as fixed electrodes and flow electrodes are different and the related mechanisms are discussed in detail. The average salt adsorption rates (ASAR) of FCDI and MCDI were improved by 134% and 17%, respectively, and the energy-normalized removal salt (ENRS) were enhanced by 21% and 53%, respectively. We believe that simple, low-cost, and environmentally friendly BAC has great potential for practical engineering applications of FCDI and MCDI.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Ball-milling / Capacitive deionization / Fixed electrode / Flow electrode

References

[1] Alami A H, Aokal K, Hawili A A, Hasan R, Alawadhi H. (2018). Facile preparation of graphene coated copper electrodes via centrifugal milling for capacitive deionization applications. Desalination, 446: 51–58

[2] Bae S, Kim Y, Kim S, Chung C M, Cho K. (2022). Enhanced sulfate ion adsorption selectivity in capacitive deionization with ball-milled activated carbon. Desalination, 540: 116014

[3] Burn S, Hoang M, Zarzo D, Olewniak F, Campos E, Bolto B, Barron O. (2015). Desalination techniques: a review of the opportunities for desalination in agriculture. Desalination, 364: 2–16

[4] Cen B, Li K, Yang R. (2022). Expeditious and effectual capacitive deionization performance by chitosan-based carbon with hierarchical porosity. Desalination, 531: 115703

[5] Deng D, Luhasile M K, Li H, Pan Q, Zheng F, Wang Y. (2022). A novel layered activated carbon with rapid ion transport through chemical activation of chestnut inner shell for capacitive deionization. Desalination, 531: 115685

[6] Dinh V C, Hou C H, Dao T N. (2022). O,N-doped porous biochar by air oxidation for enhancing heavy metal removal: The role of O, N functional groups. Chemosphere, 293: 133622

[7] Dou C, Zha i S, Liu Y, ChenP, YinD, HuangG, Zhang L(2020). Chemical modification of carbon particles to enhance the electrosorption of capacitive deionization process. Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 10(1): 57−69

[8] Folaranmi G, Tauk M, Bechelany M, Sistat P, Cretin M, Zaviska F. (2022). Investigation of fine activated carbon as a viable flow electrode in capacitive deionization. Desalination, 525: 115500

[9] He C, Ma J, Zhang C, Song J, Waite T D. (2018). Short-circuited closed-cycle operation of flow-electrode CDI for brackish water softening. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(16): 9350–9360

[10] Hegazy M A, Mohammedy M M, Dhmees A S. (2021). Phosphorous and sulfur doped asphaltene derived activated carbon for supercapacitor application. Journal of Energy Storage, 44: 103331

[11] Hua W S, Xu H J, Xie W H. (2022). Review on adsorption materials and system configurations of the adsorption desalination applications. Applied Thermal Engineering, 204: 117958

[12] Huang H, Li F, Yu C, Fang H, Guo X, Li D. (2021). Anion-/cationic compounds enhance the dispersion of flow electrodes to obtain high capacitive deionization performance. Desalination, 515: 115182

[13] Jeon S I, Park H R, Yeo J G, Yang S, Cho C H, Han M H, Kim D K. (2013). Desalination via a new membrane capacitive deionization process utilizing flow-electrodes. Energy & Environmental Science, 6(5): 1471

[14] Kim Y J, Choi J H. (2010). Enhanced desalination efficiency in capacitive deionization with an ion-selective membrane. Separation and Purification Technology, 71(1): 70–75

[15] Li Q, Xu X, Guo J, Hill J P, Xu H, Xiang L, Li C, Yamauchi Y, Mai Y. (2021). Two-dimensional MXene-polymer heterostructure with ordered in-plane mesochannels for high-performance capacitive deionization. Angewandte Chemie. International Ed. in English, 60(51): 26528–26534

[16] Li M, Liang S, Wu Y, Yang M, Huang X. (2020). Cross-stacked super-aligned carbon nanotube/activated carbon composite electrodes for efficient water purification via capacitive deionization enhanced ultrafiltration. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 14(6): 107

[17] Liang P, Sun X, Bian Y, Zhang H, Yang X, Jiang Y, Liu P, Huang X. (2017). Optimized desalination performance of high voltage flow-electrode capacitive deionization by adding carbon black in flow-electrode. Desalination, 420: 63–69

[18] Liu S H, Tang Y H. (2020). Hierarchically porous biocarbons prepared by microwave-aided carbonization and activation for capacitive deionization. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry (Lausanne, Switzerland), 878: 114587

[19] Liu Y, Chen T, Lu T, Sun Z, Chua D H C, Pan L. (2015). Nitrogen-doped porous carbon spheres for highly efficient capacitive deionization. Electrochimica Acta, 158: 403–409

[20] Lyu H, Gao B, He F, Zimmerman A R, Ding C, Huang H, Tang J. (2018a). Effects of ball milling on the physicochemical and sorptive properties of biochar: Experimental observations and governing mechanisms. Environmental and Pollution, 233: 54–63

[21] Lyu H, Gao B, He F, Zimmerman A R, Ding C, Tang J, Crittenden J C. (2018b). Experimental and modeling investigations of ball-milled biochar for the removal of aqueous methylene blue. Chemical Engineering Journal, 335: 110–119

[22] Ma J, Gao T, He Y, Zuo K, Li Q, Liang P. (2021). Enhanced charge efficiency and electrode separation utilizing magnetic carbon in flow electrode capacitive deionization. ACS EST Engineering., 1(3): 340–347

[23] Ma J, Ma J, Zhang C, Song J, Collins R N, Waite T D. (2019a). Water recovery rate in short-circuited closed-cycle operation of flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI). Environmental Science & Technology, 53(23): 13859–13867

[24] Ma J, Shen G, Zhang R, Niu J, Zhang J, Wang X, Liu J, Li X, Liu C. (2022). Small particle size activated carbon enhanced flow electrode capacitive deionization desalination performances by reducing the interfacial concentration difference. Electrochimica Acta, 431: 140971

[25] Ma J, Zhang Y, Collins R N, Tsarev S, Aoyagi N, Kinsela A S, Jones A M, Waite T D. (2019b). Flow-electrode CDI removes the uncharged Ca-UO₂-CO₃ ternary complex from brackish potable groundwater: complex dissociation, transport, and sorption. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(5): 2739–2747

[26] Parrott L K, Erasmus E. (2020). Palladium/graphene oxide nanocomposites with carbon nanotubes and/or magnetite for the reduction of nitrophenolic compounds. RSC Advances, 10(54): 32885–32896

[27] Peterson S C, Jackson M A, Kim S, Palmquist D E. (2012). Increasing biochar surface area: Optimization of ball milling parameters. Powder Technology, 228: 115–120

[28] Ren S, Li M, Sun J, Bian Y, Zuo K, Zhang X, Liang P, Huang X. (2017). A novel electrochemical reactor for nitrogen and phosphorus recovery from domestic wastewater. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 11(4): 17

[29] Suss M E, Baumann T F, Worsley M A, Rose K A, Jaramillo T F, Stadermann M, Santiago J G. (2013). Impedance-based study of capacitive porous carbon electrodes with hierarchical and bimodal porosity. Journal of Power Sources, 241: 266–273

[30] Tang W, Liang J, He D, Gong J, Tang L, Liu Z, Wang D, Zeng G. (2019). Various cell architectures of capacitive deionization: Recent advances and future trends. Water Res, 150: 225–251

[31] Tran N, Phuoc N, Khoi T, Jung H, Cho N, Lee Y W, Jung E, Kang B, Park K, Hong J, Yoo C-Y, Kang H S, Cho Y. (2022). Electroactive self-polymerized dopamine with improved desalination performance for flow- and fixed- electrodes capacitive deionization. Appl Surf Sci, 579: 152154

[32] Wei X, Li X, Lv C, Mo X, Li K. (2020). Hierarchically yolk-shell porous carbon sphere as an electrode material for high-performance capacitive deionization. Electrochimica Acta, 354: 136590

[33] Welham N J, Berbenni V, Chapman P G. (2002). Increased chemisorption onto activated carbon after ball-milling. Carbon, 40(13): 2307–2315

[34] Xing T, Sunarso J, Yang W, Yin Y, Glushenkov A M, Li L H, Howlett P C, Chen Y. (2013). Ball milling: a green mechanochemical approach for synthesis of nitrogen doped carbon nanoparticles. Nanoscale, 5(17): 7970–7976

[35] XueY, ChenH, QuJ, DaiL (2015). Nitrogen-doped graphene by ball-milling graphite with melamine for energy conversion and storage. 2D Materials, 2(4): 044001

[36] Zhang Y, Ren P, Liu Y, Presser V. (2022a). Particle size distribution influence on capacitive deionization: Insights for electrode preparation. Desalination, 525: 115503

[37] Zhao X, Wei H, Zhao H, Wang Y, Tang N. (2020). Electrode materials for capacitive deionization: A review. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry (Lausanne, Switzerland), 873: 114416

[38] Zhu E, Hong X, Ye Z, Hui K S, Hui K N. (2019). Influence of various experimental parameters on the capacitive removal of phosphate from aqueous solutions using LDHs/AC composite electrodes. Separation and Purification Technology, 215: 454–462

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press