Remediation of soil and groundwater contaminated with organic chemicals using stabilized nanoparticles: Lessons from the past two decades

Abstract

▪ Overviewed evolution and environmental applications of stabilized nanoparticles.

▪ Reviewed theories on particle stabilization for enhanced reactivity/deliverability.

▪ Examined various in situ remediation technologies based on stabilized nanoparticles.

▪ Summarized knowledge on transport of stabilized nanoparticles in porous media.

▪ Identified key knowledge gaps and future research needs on stabilized nanoparticles.

Due to improved soil deliverability and high reactivity, stabilized nanoparticles have been studied for nearly two decades for in situ remediation of soil and groundwater contaminated with organic pollutants. While large amounts of bench- and field-scale experimental data have demonstrated the potential of the innovative technology, extensive research results have also unveiled various merits and constraints associated different soil characteristics, types of nanoparticles and particle stabilization techniques. Overall, this work aims to critically overview the fundamental principles on particle stabilization, and the evolution and some recent developments of stabilized nanoparticles for degradation of organic contaminants in soil and groundwater. The specific objectives are to: 1) overview fundamental mechanisms in nanoparticle stabilization; 2) summarize key applications of stabilized nanoparticles for in situ remediation of soil and groundwater contaminated by legacy and emerging organic chemicals; 3) update the latest knowledge on the transport and fate of stabilized nanoparticles; 4) examine the merits and constraints of stabilized nanoparticles in environmental remediation applications; and 5) identify the knowledge gaps and future research needs pertaining to stabilized nanoparticles for remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater. Per instructions of this invited special issue, this review is focused on contributions from our group (one of the pioneers in the subject field), which, however, is supplemented by important relevant works by others. The knowledge gained is expected to further advance the science and technology in the environmental applications of stabilized nanoparticles.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Stabilized nanoparticle / In-situ remediation / Organic contaminant / Soil remediation / Groundwater / Fate and transport

References

[1] An B, Xie W, Zhao D (2015). Advances in the Environmental Biogeochemistry of Manganese Oxides. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 155–168

[2] An B, Zhao D (2012). Immobilization of As(III) in soil and groundwater using a new class of polysaccharide stabilized Fe-Mn oxide nanoparticles. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 211–212: 332–341

[3] Anderson P (1956). On the ion adsorption properties of synthetic magnetite. Harwell, Berks: Gt. Brit. A tomic Energy Research Establishment

[4] Azzellino A, Colombo L, Lombi S, Marchesi V, Piana A, Andrea M, Alberti L (2019). Groundwater diffuse pollution in functional urban areas: The need to define anthropogenic diffuse pollution background levels. Science of the Total Environment, 656: 1207–1222

[5] Bacik D B, Zhang M, Zhao D, Roberts C B, Seehra M S, Singh V, Shah N (2012). Synthesis and characterization of supported polysugar-stabilized palladium nanoparticle catalysts for enhanced hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene. Nanotechnology, 23(29): 294004

[6] Barnes K K, Kolpin D W, Furlong E T, Zaugg S D, Meyer M T, Barberd L B (2008). A national reconnaissance of pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States–I) Groundwater. Science of the Total Environment, 402(2–3): 192–200

[7] Bennett P, He F, Zhao D, Aiken B, Feldman L (2010). In situ testing of metallic iron nanoparticle mobility and reactivity in a shallow granular aquifer. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 116(1–4): 35–46

[8] Cai Z, Dwivedi A D, Lee W N, Zhao X, Liu W, Sillanpää M, Zhao D, Huang C H, Fu J (2018a). Application of nanotechnologies for removing pharmaceutically active compounds from water: development and future trends. Environmental Science. Nano, 5(1): 27–47

[9] Cai Z, Fu J, Du P, Zhao X, Hao X, Liu W, Zhao D (2018b). Reduction of nitrobenzene in aqueous and soil phases using carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 332: 227–236

[10] Chen J, Qiu X, Fang Z, Yang M, Pokeung T, Gu F, Cheng W, Lan B (2012). Removal mechanism of antibiotic metronidazole from aquatic solutions by using nanoscale zero-valent iron particles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 181–182: 113–119

[11] Cho Y, Choi S I (2010). Degradation of PCE, TCE and 1,1,1-TCA by nanosized FePd bimetallic particles under various experimental conditions. Chemosphere, 81(7): 940–945

[12] Comba S, Sethi R (2009). Stabilization of highly concentrated suspensions of iron nanoparticles using shear-thinning gels of xanthan gum. Water Research, 43(15): 3717–3726

[13] Cuny L, Herrling M P, Guthausen G, Horn H, Delay M (2015). Magnetic resonance imaging reveals detailed spatial and temporal distribution of iron-based nanoparticles transported through water-saturated porous media. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 182: 51–62

[14] Dong H, Xie Y, Zeng G, Tang L, Liang J, He Q, Zhao F, Zeng Y, Wu Y (2016). The dual effects of carboxymethyl cellulose on the colloidal stability and toxicity of nanoscale zero-valent iron. Chemosphere, 144: 1682–1689

[15] Du P, Chang J, Zhao H, Liu W, Dang C, Tong M, Ni J, Zhang B (2018). Sea-buckthorn-like MnO₂ decorated titanate nanotubes with oxidation property and photocatalytic activity for enhanced degradation of 17β-estradiol under solar light. ACS Applied Energy Materials, 1(5): 2123–2133

[16] Duan J, Ji H, Liu W, Zhao X, Han B, Tian S, Zhao D (2019a). Enhanced immobilization of U(VI) using a new type of FeS-modified Fe⁰ core-shell particles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 359: 1617–1628

[17] Duan J, Ji H, Zhao X, Tian S, Liu X, Liu W, Zhao D (2019b). Immobilization of U(VI) by stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles: Water chemistry effects, mechanisms, and long-term stability. Chemical Engineering Journal, 124692

[18] Duan L, Naidu R, Thavamani P, Meaklim J, Megharaj M (2015). Managing long-term polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soils: A risk-based approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 22(12): 8927–8941

[19] Elliott D W, Zhang W (2001). Field assessment of nanoscale bimetallic particles for groundwater treatment. Environmental Science & Technology, 35(24): 4922–4926

[20] Fan D, Lan Y, Tratnyek P G, Johnson R L, Filip J, O’carroll D M, Nunez Garcia A, Agrawal A (2017). Sulfidation of iron-based materials: A review of processes and implications for water treatment and remediation. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(22): 13070–13085

[21] Gong Y, Gai L, Tang J, Fu J, Wang Q, Zeng E Y (2017). Reduction of Cr(VI) in simulated groundwater by FeS-coated iron magnetic nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment, 595: 743–751

[22] Gong Y, Liu Y, Xiong Z, Zhao D (2014). Immobilization of mercury by carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles: Reaction mechanisms and effects of stabilizer and water chemistry. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(7): 3986–3994

[23] Gong Y, Tang J, Zhao D (2016a). Application of iron sulfide particles for groundwater and soil remediation: A review. Water Research, 89: 309–320

[24] Gong Y, Wang L, Liu J, Tang J, Zhao D (2016b). Removal of aqueous perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) using starch-stabilized magnetite nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment, 562: 191–200

[25] Gong Y, Zhao D, Wang Q (2018). An overview of field-scale studies on remediation of soil contaminated with heavy metals and metalloids: Technical progress over the last decade. Water Research, 147: 440–460

[26] Guan X H, Sun Y K, Qin H J, Li J X, Lo I M C, He D, Dong H R (2015). The limitations of applying zero-valent iron technology in contaminants sequestration and the corresponding countermeasures: The development in zero-valent iron technology in the last two decades (1994–2014). Water Research, 75: 224–248

[27] Han B, Liu W, Zhao X, Cai Z Q, Zhao D Y (2017a). Transport of multi-walled carbon nanotubes stabilized by carboxymethyl cellulose and starch in saturated porous media: Influences of electrolyte, clay and humic acid. Science of the Total Environment, 599-600: 188–197

[28] Han B, Zhang M, Zhao D (2017b). In-situ degradation of soil-sorbed 17β-estradiol using carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized manganese oxide nanoparticles: Column studies. Environmental Pollution, 223: 238–246

[29] Han B, Zhang M, Zhao D, Feng Y (2015). Degradation of aqueous and soil-sorbed estradiol using a new class of stabilized manganese oxide nanoparticles. Water Research, 70: 288–299

[30] He F, Li Z, Shi S, Xu W, Sheng H, Gu Y, Jiang Y, Xi B (2018). Dechlorination of excess trichloroethene by bimetallic and sulfidated nanoscale zero-valent iron. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(15): 8627–8637

[31] He F, Zhang M, Qian T W, Zhao D Y (2009). Transport of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron nanoparticles in porous media: Column experiments and modeling. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 334(1): 96–102

[32] He F, Zhao D (2005). Preparation and characterization of a new class of starch-stabilized bimetallic nanoparticles for degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(9): 3314–3320

[33] He F, Zhao D (2007). Manipulating the size and dispersibility of zerovalent iron nanoparticles by use of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilizers. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(17): 6216–6221

[34] He F, Zhao D (2008). Hydrodechlorination of trichloroethene using stabilized Fe-Pd nanoparticles: Reaction mechanism and effects of stabilizers, catalysts and reaction conditions. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 84(3–4): 533–540

[35] He F, Zhao D, Liu J, Roberts C B (2007). Stabilization of Fe-Pd nanoparticles with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for enhanced transport and dechlorination of trichloroethylene in soil and groundwater. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 46(1): 29–34

[36] He F, Zhao D, Paul C (2010). Field assessment of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron nanoparticles for in situ destruction of chlorinated solvents in source zones. Water Research, 44(7): 2360–2370

[37] Hoag G E, Collins J B, Holcomb J L, Hoag J R, Nadagouda M N, Varma R S (2009). Degradation of bromothymol blue by ‘greener’ nano-scale zero-valent iron synthesized using tea polyphenols. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 19(45): 8671–8677

[38] Hotze E M, Phenrat T, Lowry G V (2010). Nanoparticle aggregation: Challenges to understanding transport and reactivity in the environment. Journal of Environmental Quality, 39(6): 1909–1924

[39] Hu J D, Zevi Y, Kou X M, Xiao J, Wang X J, Jin Y (2010). Effect of dissolved organic matter on the stability of magnetite nanoparticles under different pH and ionic strength conditions. Science of the Total Environment, 408(16): 3477–3489

[40] Hu P, Guo C, Zhang Y, Lv J, Zhang Y, Xu J (2019). Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment of abused drugs and their metabolites in a typical urban river in north China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 56 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-019-1140-5

[41] Jeong H Y, Hayes K F (2007). Reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene by mackinawite (FeS) in the presence of metals: Reaction rates. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(18): 6390–6396

[42] Ji H D, Zhu Y M, Liu W, Bozack M J, Qian T W, Zhao D Y (2019). Sequestration of pertechnetate using carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized FeS nanoparticles: Effectiveness and mechanisms. Colloids and Surfaces. A, Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 561: 373–380

[43] Jiang L, Huang C, Chen J, Chen X (2009). Oxidative transformation of 17β-estradiol by MnO₂ in aqueous solution. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 57(2): 221–229

[44] Johnson R L, Nurmi J T, O’Brien Johnson G S, Fan D M, O’Brien Johnson R L, Shi Z, Salter-Blanc A J, Tratnyek P G, Lowry G V (2013). Field-scale transport and transformation of carboxymethylcellulose-stabilized nano zero-valent iron. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(3): 1573–1580

[45] Joo S H, Zhao D (2008). Destruction of lindane and atrazine using stabilized iron nanoparticles under aerobic and anaerobic conditions: Effects of catalyst and stabilizer. Chemosphere, 70(3): 418–425

[46] Kanel S R, Goswami R R, Clement T P, Barnett M O, Zhao D (2008). Two dimensional transport characteristics of surface stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles in porous media. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(3): 896–900

[47] Karn B, Kuiken T, Otto M (2009). Nanotechnology and in situ remediation: A review of the benefits and potential risks. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(12): 1813–1831

[48] Kim E J, Kim J H, Azad A M, Chang Y S (2011). Facile synthesis and characterization of Fe/FeS nanoparticles for environmental applications. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 3(5): 1457–1462

[49] Kim E J, Murugesan K, Kim J H, Tratnyek P G, Chang Y S (2013). Remediation of trichloroethylene by FeS-coated iron nanoparticles in simulated and real groundwater: Effects of water chemistry. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 52(27): 9343–9350

[50] Kim H J, Phenrat T, Tilton R D, Lowry G V (2012). Effect of kaolinite, silica fines and pH on transport of polymer-modified zero valent iron nano-particles in heterogeneous porous media. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 370(1): 1–10

[51] Kretzschmar R, Borkovec M, Grolimund D, Elimelech M (1999). Mobile subsurface colloids and their role in contaminant transport. Advances in Agronomy, 66(66): 121–193

[52] Lee C, Kim J Y, Lee W I, Nelson K L, Yoon J, Sedlak D L (2008). Bactericidal effect of zero-valent iron nanoparticles on Escherichia coli. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(13): 4927–4933

[53] Lefevre E, Bossa N, Wiesner M R, Gunsch C K (2016). A review of the environmental implications of in situ remediation by nanoscale zero valent iron (nZVI): Behavior, transport and impacts on microbial communities. Science of the Total Environment, 565: 889–901

[54] Liang Q, Zhao D (2014). Immobilization of arsenate in a sandy loam soil using starch-stabilized magnetite nanoparticles. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 271: 16–23

[55] Liang Q, Zhao D, Qian T, Freeland K, Feng Y (2012). Effects of stabilizers and water chemistry on arsenate sorption by polysaccharide-stabilized magnetite nanoparticles. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 51(5): 2407–2418

[56] Liu C, Chen X, Mack E E, Wang S, Du W, Yin Y, Banwart S A, Guo H (2019). Evaluating a novel permeable reactive bio-barrier to remediate PAH-contaminated groundwater. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 368: 444–451

[57] Liu J, He F, Durham E, Zhao D, Roberts C B (2008). Polysugar-stabilized Pd nanoparticles exhibiting high catalytic activities for hydrodechlorination of environmentally deleterious trichloroethylene. Langmuir, 24(1): 328–336

[58] Liu R, Zhao D (2007). Reducing leachability and bioaccessibility of lead in soils using a new class of stabilized iron phosphate nanoparticles. Water Research, 41(12): 2491–2502

[59] Liu R, Zhao D (2013). Synthesis and characterization of a new class of stabilized apatite nanoparticles and applying the particles to in situ Pb immobilization in a fire-range soil. Chemosphere, 91(5): 594–601

[60] Liu W, Tian S, Zhao X, Xie W, Gong Y, Zhao D (2015). Application of stabilized nanoparticles for in situ remediation of metal-contaminated soil and groundwater: A critical review. Current Pollution Reports, 1(4): 280–291

[61] Liu W, Zhao X, Cai Z, Han B, Zhao D (2016). Aggregation and stabilization of multiwalled carbon nanotubes in aqueous suspensions: influences of carboxymethyl cellulose, starch and humic acid. RSC Advances, 6(71): 67260–67270

[62] Liu Y, Zhang C, Hu D, Kuhlenschmidt M S, Kuhlenschmidt T B, Mylon S E, Kong R, Bhargava R, Nguyen T H (2013). Role of collector alternating charged patches on transport of cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in a patchwise charged heterogeneous micromodel. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(6): 2670–2678

[63] Mazloomi S, Nasseri S, Nabizadeh R, Yaghmaeian K, Alimohammadi K, Nazmara S, Mahvi A H (2016). Remediation of fuel oil contaminated soils by activated persulfate in the presence of MnO₂. Soil and Water Research, 11(2): 131–138

[64] Mcmanus S L, Coxon C, Mellander P E, Richards K G (2017). Hydrogeological characteristics influencing the occurrence of pesticides and pesticide metabolites in groundwater across the Republic of Ireland. Science of The Total Environment, 601–602: 594–602

[65] MEE (2016). 2015 China’s Environmental Conditions Report. Beijing: Ministry of Ecology and Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China

[66] Moran M J, Zogorski J S, Squillace P J (2007). Chlorinated solvents in groundwater of the United States. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(1): 74–81

[67] MWR (2015). China's Water Resource Bulletin 2014. Beijing: Ministry of Water Resource of China

[68] Njagi E C, Huang H, Stafford L, Genuino H, Galindo H M, Collins J B, Hoag G E, Suib S L (2011). Biosynthesis of iron and silver nanoparticles at room temperature using aqueous sorghum bran extracts. Langmuir, 27(1): 264–271

[69] O’Carroll D, Sleep B, Krol M, Boparai H, Kocur C (2013). Nanoscale zero valent iron and bimetallic particles for contaminated site remediation. Advances in Water Resources, 51: 104–122

[70] O’Connor D, Hou D Y, Ok Y S, Song Y N, Sarmah A K, Li X R, Tack F M G (2018). Sustainable in situ remediation of recalcitrant organic pollutants in groundwater with controlled release materials: A review. Journal of Controlled Release, 283: 200–213

[71] O’Hannesin S F, Gillham R W (1992). A permeable reaction wall for in situ degradation of halogenated organic compounds. Toronto, Ontario, Canada

[72] Obiri-Nyarko F, Grajales-Mesa S J, Malina G (2014). An overview of permeable reactive barriers for in situ sustainable groundwater remediation. Chemosphere, 111: 243–259

[73] Phenrat T, Liu Y, Tilton R D, Lowry G V (2009). Adsorbed polyelectrolyte coatings decrease Fe⁰ nanoparticle reactivity with TCE in water: Conceptual model and mechanisms. Environmental Science & Technology, 43(5): 1507–1514

[74] Phenrat T, Saleh N, Sirk K, Kim H J, Tilton R D, Lowry G V (2008). Stabilization of aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions by anionic polyelectrolytes: Adsorbed anionic polyelectrolyte layer properties and their effect on aggregation and sedimentation. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 10(5): 795–814

[75] Phenrat T, Saleh N, Sirk K, Tilton R D, Lowry G V (2007). Aggregation and sedimentation of aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(1): 284–290

[76] Quinn J, Geiger C, Clausen C, Brooks K, Coon C, O’hara S, Krug T, Major D, Yoon W S, Gavaskar A, Holdsworth T (2005). Field demonstration of DNAPL dehalogenation using emulsified zero-valent iron. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(5): 1309–1318

[77] Sakulchaicharoen N, O’carroll D M, Herrera J E (2010). Enhanced stability and dechlorination activity of pre-synthesis stabilized nanoscale FePd particles. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 118(3–4): 117–127

[78] Saleh N, Kim H J, Phenrat T, Matyjaszewski K, Tilton R D, Lowry G V (2008). Ionic strength and composition affect the mobility of surface-modified Fe⁰ nanoparticles in water-saturated sand columns. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(9): 3349–3355

[79] Schrick B, Hydutsky B W, Blough J L, Mallouk T E (2004). Delivery vehicles for zerovalent metal nanoparticles in soil and groundwater. Chemistry of Materials, 16(11): 2187–2193

[80] Squillace P J, Moran M J (2007). Factors associated with sources, transport, and fate of volatile organic compounds and their mixtures in aquifers of the United States. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(7): 2123–2130

[81] Stroo H F, Unger M, Ward C H, Kavanaugh M C, Vogel C, Leeson A, Marqusee J A, Smith B P (2003). Peer reviewed: Remediating chlorinated solvent source zones. Environmental Science & Technology, 37(11): 224A–230A

[82] Su C M (2017). Environmental implications and applications of engineered nanoscale magnetite and its hybrid nanocomposites: A review of recent literature. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 322: 48–84

[83] Sunkara B, Zhan J, He J, Mcpherson G L, Piringer G, John V T (2010). Nanoscale zerovalent iron supported on uniform carbon microspheres for the in situ remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2(10): 2854–2862

[84] Swindle A L, Madden A S E, Cozzarelli I M, Benamara M (2014). Size-dependent reactivity of magnetite nanoparticles: A field-laboratory comparison. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(19): 11413–11420

[85] Tang J, Zhu W, Kookana R, Katayama A (2013) Characteristics of biochar and its application in remediation of contaminated soil. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 116(6): 653–659

[86] Tosco T, Bosch J, Meckenstock R U, Sethi R (2012). Transport of ferrihydrite nanoparticles in saturated porous media: Role of ionic strength and flow rate. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(7): 4008–4015

[87] Tratnyek P G, Salter-Blanc A J, Nurmi J T, Amonette J E, Liu J, Wang C, Dohnalkova A, Baer D R (2011). Aquatic Redox Chemistry. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society,381–406

[88] Turner B D, Binning P J, Sloan S W (2008). A calcite permeable reactive barrier for the remediation of fluoride from spent potliner (SPL) contaminated groundwater. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 95(3–4): 110–120

[89] Vignola R, Bagatin R, De Folly D’Auris A, Flego C, Nalli M, Ghisletti D, Millini R, Sisto R (2011). Zeolites in a permeable reactive barrier (PRB): one year of field experience in a refinery groundwater-part 1: The performances. Chemical Engineering Journal, 178: 204–209

[90] Wang C B, Zhang W X (1997). Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environmental Science & Technology, 31(7): 2154–2156

[91] Wang T, Qian T, Zhao D, Liu X, Ding Q (2020). Immobilization of perrhenate using synthetic pyrite particles: Effectiveness and remobilization potential. Science of the Total Environment, 725: 138423

[92] Zhang W, Wang W, Liang H, Gao D (2019). Occurrence and fate of typical antibiotics in wastewater treatment plants in Harbin, North-east China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 34

[93] Zhang G, Wei J, Luo J, Xue H, Huang D, Cheng Z, Jiang X (2019). Nanoscale zero-valent iron supported on biochar for the highly efficient removal of nitrobenzene. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 61

[94] Wei Y T, Wu S C, Chou C M, Che C H, Tsai S M, Lien H L (2010). Influence of nanoscale zero-valent iron on geochemical properties of groundwater and vinyl chloride degradation: A field case study. Water Research, 44(1): 131–140

[95] WHO (2006). Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources. Geneva: World Health Organization

[96] Wiesner M, Bottero J Y (2007). Environmental Nanotechnology. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing

[97] Wu J, Zeng R J (2018). In situ preparation of stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticle-impregnated alginate composite for selenite remediation. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(11): 6487–6496

[98] Xu T, Ji H, Gu Y, Tong T, Xia Y, Zhang L, Zhao D (2020a). Enhanced adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of perfluorooctanoic acid in water using iron (hydr)oxides/carbon sphere composite. Chemical Engineering Journal, 388: 124230

[99] Xu T, Zhu Y, Duan J, Xia Y, Tong T, Zhang L, Zhao D (2020b). Enhanced photocatalytic degradation of perfluoroocanoic acid using carbon-modified bismuth phosphate composite: Effectiveness, material syntrgy and roles of carbon. Chemical Engineering Journal, 395: 124991

[100] Zhang M, Bacik D B, Roberts C B, Zhao D (2013). Catalytic hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene in water with supported CMC-stabilized palladium nanoparticles. Water Research, 47(11): 3706–3715

[101] Zhang M, He F, Zhao D, Hao X (2011). Degradation of soil-sorbed trichloroethylene by stabilized zero valent iron nanoparticles: Effects of sorption, surfactants, and natural organic matter. Water Research, 45(7): 2401–2414

[102] Zhang M, He F, Zhao D Y, Hao X D (2017). Transport of stabilized iron nanoparticles in porous media: Effects of surface and solution chemistry and role of adsorption. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 322: 284–291

[103] Zhao X, Liu W, Cai Z, Han B, Qian T, Zhao D (2016). An overview of preparation and applications of stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles for soil and groundwater remediation. Water Research, 100: 245–266

[104] Zhao Y, Lin L, Hong M (2019) Nitrobenzene contamination of groundwater in a petrochemical industry site. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-019-1107-6

[105] Zheng M, Lu J, Zhao D (2018a). Effects of starch-coating of magnetite nanoparticles on cellular uptake, toxicity and gene expression profiles in adult zebrafish. Science of the Total Environment, 622–623: 930–941

[106] Zheng M, Lu J, Zhao D (2018b). Toxicity and transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses of adult zebrafish in response to exposure carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles. Scientific Reports, 8: 8083

[107] Zheng T, Zhan J, He J, Day C, Lu Y, Mcpherson G L, Piringer G, John V T (2008). Reactivity characteristics of nanoscale zerovalent iron-silica composites for trichloroethylene remediation. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(12): 4494–4499

[108] Zimmermann J, Halloran L J S, Hunkeler D (2020). Tracking chlorinated contaminants in the subsurface using compound-specific chlorine isotope analysis: A review of principles, current challenges and applications. Chemosphere, 244: 125476

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s) 2020. This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep. com.cn