Disinfection byproducts in drinking water and regulatory compliance: A critical review

Abstract

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are regulated in drinking water in a number of countries. This critical review focuses on the issues associated with DBP regulatory compliance, including methods for DBP analysis, occurrence levels, the regulation comparison among various countries, DBP compliance strategies, and emerging DBPs. The regulation comparison between China and the United States (US) indicated that the DBP regulations in China are more stringent based on the number of regulated compounds and maximum levels. The comparison assessment using the Information Collection Rule (ICR) database indicated that the compliance rate of 500 large US water plants under the China regulations is much lower than that under the US regulations (e.g. 62.2% versus 89.6% for total trihalomethanes). Precursor removal and alternative disinfectants are common practices for DBP regulatory compliance. DBP removal after formation, including air stripping for trihalomethane removal and biodegradation for haloacetic acid removal, have gained more acceptance in DBP control. Formation of emerging DBPs, including iodinated DBPs and nitrogenous DBPs, is one of unintended consequences of precursor removal and alternative disinfection. At much lower levels than carbonaceous DBPs, however, emerging DBPs have posed higher health risks.

Keywords

Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) / drinking water standards / regulatory compliance / alternative disinfection / information collection rule (ICR) / emerging DBPs

References

[1] Sadiq R, Rodriguez M J. Disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water and predictive models for their occurrence: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 2004, 321(1–3): 21–46

[2] Xie Y F. Disinfection Byproducts in Drinking Water—Formation, Analysis, and Control. Washington, DC: Lewis Publishers, 2004

[3] Richardson S D, Plewa M J, Wagner E D, Schoeny R, Demarini D M. Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutation Research, 2007, 636(1–3): 178–242

[4] Karanfil T, Krasner S W, Westerhoff P, Xie Y F. Recent advances in Disinfection by-product: Formation, occurrence, health effects, and regulations. In: Karanfil T, Krasner S W, Westerhoff P, Xie Y F, editors, Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water – Occurrence, Formation, Health Effects, and Control. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 2008, 2–19

[5] Krasner S W. The formation and control of emerging disinfection by-products of health concern. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A—Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, 2009, 367(1904): 4077–4095

[6] Bond T, Templeton M R, Graham N. Precursors of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water—a critical review and analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2012, 235-236: 1–16

[7] Shah A D, Mitch W A. Halonitroalkanes, halonitriles, haloamides, and N-nitrosamines: a critical review of nitrogenous disinfection byproduct formation pathways. Environmental Science & Technology, 2012, 46(1): 119–131

[8] GB5749–2006. P.R. China Standards for Drinking Water Quality. Beijing: Department of Health, P.R. China, 2006 (in Chinese)

[9] Xie Y F. Disinfection by-product analysis in drinking water. American Laboratory, 2000, 32(22): 50–54

[10] GB/T 5750.10–2006. P.R. China Standards Examination Methods for Drinking Water – Disinfection By-products Parameters. Beijing: Department of Health, P.R. China, 2006 (in Chinese)

[11] Wang X M, Zhang X L, Yang H W, Zhang J S, Liu L J, Liu B, Xie Y F. Comparison of methods for chloral hydrate analysis in drinking water. Water & Wastewater Engineering, 2013, 39 (supplementary): 125–128 (in Chinese)

[12] Xie Y F, Hwang C J. Cyanogen chloride and cyanogen bromide analysis in drinking water. In: Meyers R A, ed. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2006

[13] Xie Y F, Reckhow D A. A rapid and simple analytical method for cyanogen chloride and cyanogen-bromide in drinking water. Water Research, 1993, 27(3): 507–511

[14] Richardson S D. Disinfection by-products and other emerging contaminants in drinking water. Trace-Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2003, 22(10): 666–684

[15] Weinberg H S. Modern approaches to the analysis of disinfection by-products in drinking water. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, 2009, 367(1904): 4097–4118

[16] Loos R, Barcel� D. Determination of haloacetic acids in aqueous environments by solid-phase extraction followed by ion-pair liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometric detection. Journal of Chromatography. A, 2001, 938(1–2): 45–55

[17] Meng L, Wu S, Ma F, Jia A, Hu J. Trace determination of nine haloacetic acids in drinking water by liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography. A, 2010, 1217(29): 4873–4876

[18] Richardson S D. The role of GC-MS and LC-MS in the discovery of drinking water disinfection by-products. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 2002, 4(1): 1–9

[19] Richardson S D. Environmental mass spectrometry: emerging contaminants and current issues. Analytical Chemistry, 2008, 80(12): 4373–4402

[20] Zhang X, Minear R A, Guo Y, Hwang C J, Barrett S E, Ikeda K, Shimizu Y, Matsui S. An electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry method for identifying chlorinated drinking water disinfection byproducts. Water Research, 2004, 38(18): 3920–3930

[21] Zhang X, Talley J W, Boggess B, Ding G, Birdsell D. Fast selective detection of polar brominated disinfection byproducts in drinking water using precursor ion scans. Environmental Science & Technology, 2008, 42(17): 6598–6603

[22] Zhang X, Minear R A, Barrett S E. Characterization of high molecular weight disinfection byproducts from chlorination of humic substances with/without coagulation pretreatment using UF-SEC-ESI-MS/MS. Environmental Science & Technology, 2005, 39(4): 963–972

[23] Xie Y, Zhou H J. Biologically active carbon for HAA removal: part II, column study. Journal—American Water Works Association, 2002, 94(5): 126–134

[24] Urbansky E T. Techniques and methods for the determination of haloacetic acids in potable water. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 2000, 2(4): 285–291

[25] Kubáň P, Makarõtševa N, Kiplagat I K, Kaljurand M. Determination of five priority haloacetic acids by capillary electrophoresis with contactless conductivity detection and solid phase extraction preconcentration. Journal of Separation Science, 2012, 35(5–6): 666–673

[26] Zwierner C, Richardson S D. Analysis of disinfection by-products in drinking water by LC–MS and related MS techniques. Trace-Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2005, 24(7): 613–621

[27] Zwiener C, Frimmel F H. LC-MS analysis in the aquatic environment and in water treatment technology—A critical review. Part II: Applications for emerging contaminants and related pollutants, microorganisms and humic acids. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 2004, 378(4): 862–874

[28] Liu Y, Mou S. Determination of bromate and chlorinated haloacetic acids in bottled drinking water with chromatographic methods. Chemosphere, 2004, 55(9): 1253–1258

[29] Krasner S W, McGuire M J, Jacangelo J G, Patania N L, Reagan K M, Aieta E M. The occurrence of disinfection by-products in United-States drinking-water. Journal—American Water Works Association, 1989, 81(8): 41–53

[30] Krasner S W, Weinberg H S, Richardson S D, Pastor S J, Chinn R, Sclimenti M J, Onstad G D, Thruston A D Jr, Thruston A D. Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts. Environmental Science & Technology, 2006, 40(23): 7175–7185

[31] Pressman J G, Richardson S D, Speth T F, Miltner R J, Narotsky M G, Hunter E S 3rd, Rice G E, Teuschler L K, McDonald A, Parvez S, Krasner S W, Weinberg H S, McKague A B, Parrett C J, Bodin N, Chinn R, Lee C F, Simmons J E. Concentration, chlorination, and chemical analysis of drinking water for disinfection byproduct mixtures health effects research: U.S.EPA’s Four Lab Study. Environmental Science & Technology, 2010, 44(19): 7184–7192

[32] McGuire M J, McLain J L, Obolensky A. Information collection rule data analysis. Denver: American Water Works Association Research Foundation, 2002

[33] Obolensky A, Singer P C. Halogen substitution patterns among disinfection byproducts in the information collection rule database. Environmental Science & Technology, 2005, 39(8): 2719–2730

[34] Obolensky A, Singer P C, Shukairy H M. Information collection rule data evaluation and analysis to support impacts on disinfection by-product formation. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 2007, 39(8): 53–63

[35] Mitch W A, Krasner S W, Westerhoff P, Dotson A. Occurrence and formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products. Denver: Water Research Foundation, 2009

[36] McGuire M J, Meadow R G. AWWARF trihalomethane survey. Journal—American Water Works Association, 1988, 80(1): 61–68

[37] Williams D T, LeBel G L, Benoit F M. Disinfection by-products in Canadian drinking water. Chemosphere, 1997, 34(2): 299–316

[38] Simpson K L, Hayes K P. Drinking water disinfection by-products: an Australian perspective. Water Research, 1998, 32(5): 1522–1528

[39] Nissinen T K, Miettinen I T, Martikainen P J, Vartiainen T. Disinfection by-products in Finnish drinking waters. Chemosphere, 2002, 48(1): 9–20

[40] Lee K J, Kim B H, Hong J E, Pyo H S, Park S J, Lee D W. A study on the distribution of chlorination by-products (CBPs) in treated water in Korea. Water Research, 2001, 35(12): 2861–2872

[41] Yoon J, Choi Y, Cho S, Lee D. Low trihalomethane formation in Korean drinking water. Science of the Total Environment, 2003, 302(1–3): 157–166

[42] Ding H, Meng L, Zhang H, Yu J, An W, Hu J, Yang M. Occurrence, profiling and prioritization of halogenated disinfection by-products in drinking water of China. Environmental Science—Processes & Impacts, 2013, 15(7): 1424–1429

[43] US Environmental Protection Agency. National primary drinking water regulations: disinfectants and disinfection byproducts. Federal Register, 1998, 63: 69390–69476

[44] US Environmental Protection Agency. National primary drinking water regulations: stage 2 disinfectants and disinfection byproducts rule. Federal Register, 2006, 71: 388–493

[45] CDW. Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality Summary Table. Committee on Drinking Water of the of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Health and the Environment, Canada, 2012

[46] EU. Council directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption, 1998

[47] Golfinopoulos S K, Nikolaou A D. Survey of disinfection by-products in drinking water in Athens, Greece. Desalination, 2005, 176(1–3): 13–24

[48] WHO. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4th edition. World Health Organization, 2011

[49] MHLW. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan

[50] NHMRC, NRMMC. Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 6. Commonwealth of Australia, 2011

[51] Bond T, Huang J, Templeton M R, Graham N. Occurrence and control of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water—a review. Water Research, 2011, 45(15): 4341–4354

[52] Nawrocki J, Andrzejewski P. Nitrosamines and water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2011, 189(1–2): 1–18

[53] Gopal K, Tripathy S S, Bersillon J L, Dubey S P. Chlorination byproducts, their toxicodynamics and removal from drinking water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2007, 140(1–2): 1–6

[54] Watson K, Farr� M J, Knight N. Strategies for the removal of halides from drinking water sources, and their applicability in disinfection by-product minimisation: a critical review. Journal of Environmental Management, 2012, 110: 276–298

[55] Mitch W A, Sharp J O, Trussell R P, Valentine R L, Alvarez-Cohen L, Sedlak D L. N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) as a drinking water contaminant: a review. Environmental Engineering Science, 2003, 20(5): 389–404

[56] Schreiber I M, Mitch W A. Influence of the order of reagent addition on NDMA formation during chloramination. Environmental Science & Technology, 2005, 39(10): 3811–3818

[57] Hua G H, Reckhow D A. DBP formation during chlorination and chloramination: Effect of reaction time, pH, dosage, and temperature. Journal—American Water Works Association, 2008, 100(8): 82–95

[58] Tung H H, Unz R F, Xie Y F. Haloacetic acid removal by granular activated carbon adsorption. Journal—American Water Works Association, 2006, 98(6): 107–112

[59] Xie Y F, Zhou H J, Romano J P. Development of a capillary electrophoresis method for haloacetic acids. Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society, 1999, 217: 742–742

[60] Wu H W, Xie Y F. Effects of EBCT and water temperature on HAA removal using BAC. Journal—American Water Works Association, 2005, 97(11): 94–101

[61] Tung H H, Xie Y F. Association between haloacetic acid degradation and heterotrophic bacteria in water distribution systems. Water Research, 2009, 43(4): 971–978

[62] Rodriguez M J, S�rodes J B, Levallois P. Behavior of trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in a drinking water distribution system. Water Research, 2004, 38(20): 4367–4382

[63] Boyden B H, Banh D T, Huckabay H K, Fernandes J B. Using inclined cascade aeration to strip chlorinated VOCs from drinking-water. Journal—American Water Works Association, 1992, 84(5): 62–69

[64] Velazquez C, Estevez L A. Stripping of trihalomethanes from drinking-water in a bubble-column aerator. American Institute of Chemical Engineers Journal, 1992, 38(2): 211–218

[65] Sherant S R. Trihalomethane Control by Aeration. Dissertation for the Master Degree. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University, 2008

[66] Sherant S R, Hardin Y D, Xie Y F. A simple technology for THM control in consecutive systems. In: Proceedings of the American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, 2007

[67] Brooke E, Collins M R. Post treatment aeration to reduce THMs. Journal—American Water Works Association, 2011, 103(10): 84–96

[68] Hozalski R M, Zhang L, Arnold W A. Reduction of haloacetic acids by Fe0: implications for treatment and fate. Environmental Science & Technology, 2001, 35(11): 2258–2263

[69] Zhang L, Arnold W A, Hozalski R M. Kinetics of haloacetic acid reactions with Fe(0). Environmental Science & Technology, 2004, 38(24): 6881–6889

[70] Pearson C R, Hozalski R M, Arnold W A. Degradation of chloropicrin in the presence of zero-valent iron. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2005, 24(12): 3037–3042

[71] Chen C, Wang X, Chang Y, Liu H. Dechlorination of disinfection by-product monochloroacetic acid in drinking water by nanoscale palladized iron bimetallic particle. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China), 2008, 20(8): 945–951

[72] Li T, Chen Y, Wan P, Fan M, Yang X J. Chemical degradation of drinking water disinfection byproducts by millimeter-sized particles of iron-silicon and magnesium-aluminum alloys. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2010, 132(8): 2500–2501

[73] Wang X Y, Ning P, Liu H L, Ma J. Dechlorination of chloroacetic acids by Pd/Fe nanoparticles: Effect of dying method on metallic activity and the parameter optimization. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2010, 94(1–2): 55–63

[74] Tang S, Wang X M, Yang H W, Xie Y F. Haloacetic acid removal by sequential zero-valent iron reduction and biologically active carbon degradation. Chemosphere, 2013, 90(4): 1563–1567

[75] Woo Y T, Lai D, McLain J L, Manibusan M K, Dellarco V. Use of mechanism-based structure-activity relationships analysis in carcinogenic potential ranking for drinking water disinfection by-products. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2002, 110(Suppl 1): 75–87

[76] Cancho B, Ventura F, Galceran M, Diaz A, Ricart S. Determination, synthesis and survey of iodinated trihalomethanes in water treatment processes. Water Research, 2000, 34(13): 3380–3390

[77] Chen P H, Richardson S D, Krasner S W, Majetich G, Glish G L. Hydrogen abstraction and decomposition of bromopicrin and other trihalogenated disinfection byproducts by GC/MS. Environmental Science & Technology, 2002, 36(15): 3362–3371

[78] Wang C K, Zhang X J, Wang J, Chen C. Detecting N-nitrosamines in water treatment plants and distribution systems in China using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tadenm mass spectrometry. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 2012, 6(6): 770–777

[79] Zhao Y Y, Boyd J, Hrudey S E, Li X F. Characterization of new nitrosamines in drinking water using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Environmental Science & Technology, 2006, 40(24): 7636–7641

[80] Egorov A I, Tereschenko A A, Altshul L M, Vartiainen T, Samsonov D, LaBrecque B, M�ki-Paakkanen J, Drizhd N L, Ford T E. Exposures to drinking water chlorination by-products in a Russian city. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 2003, 206(6): 539–551

[81] Boyd J M, Hrudey S E, Richardson S D, Li X F. Solid-phase extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis of nitrosamines in treated drinking water and wastewater. Trace-Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2011, 30(9): 1410–1421

[82] Krasner S W, Mitch W A, McCurry D L, Hanigan D, Westerhoff P. Formation, precursors, control, and occurrence of nitrosamines in drinking water: a review. Water Research, 2013, 47(13): 4433–4450

[83] Zhao H, Liu H, Hu C, Qu J. Effect of aluminum speciation and structure characterization on preferential removal of disinfection byproduct precursors by aluminum hydroxide coagulation. Environmental Science & Technology, 2009, 43(13): 5067–5072

[84] Uyak V, Yavuz S, Toroz I, Ozaydin A, Genceli E A. Disinfection by-products precursors removal by enhanced coagulation and PAC adsorption. Desalination, 2007, 216(1–3): 334–344

[85] Hua G, Reckhow D A. Characterization of disinfection byproduct precursors based on hydrophobicity and molecular size. Environmental Science & Technology, 2007, 41(9): 3309–3315

[86] Liang L, Singer P C. Factors influencing the formation and relative distribution of haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes in drinking water. Environmental Science & Technology, 2003, 37(13): 2920–2928

[87] Ates N, Yilmaz L, Kitis M, Yetis U. Removal of disinfection by-product precursors by UF and NF membranes in low-SUVA waters. Journal of Membrane Science, 2009, 328(1–2): 104–112

[88] Chellam S. Effects of nanofiltration on trihalomethane and haloacetic acid precursor removal and speciation in waters containing low concentrations of bromide ion. Environmental Science & Technology, 2000, 34(9): 1813–1820

[89] Chellam S, Sharma R R, Shetty G R, Wei Y. Nanofiltration of pretreated Lake Houston water- Disinfection by-product speciation, relationships, and control. Separation and Purification Technology, 2008, 64(2): 160–169

[90] Harrison C J, Le Gouellec Y A, Cheng R C, Childress A E. Bench-scale testing of nanofiltration for seawater desalination. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 2007, 133(11): 1004–1014

[91] Wang C K, Zhang X J, Chen C, Wang J. Factors controlling N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation from dissolved organic matter. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 2013, 7(2): 151–157

[92] Park S H, Wei S, Mizaikoff B, Taylor A E, Favero C, Huang C H, Huang C H. Degradation of amine-based water treatment polymers during chloramination as N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) precursors. Environmental Science & Technology, 2009, 43(5): 1360–1366

[93] Mitch W A, Sedlak D L. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from dimethylamine during chlorination. Environmental Science & Technology, 2002, 36(4): 588–595

[94] Kohut K D, Andrews S A. Polyelectrolyte age and N-nitrosodimethylamine formation in drinking water treatment. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada, 2003, 38(4): 719–735

[95] Bichsel Y, von Gunten U. Formation of iodo-trihalomethanes during disinfection and oxidation of iodide containing waters. Environmental Science & Technology, 2000, 34(13): 2784–2791

[96] Richardson S D, Fasano F, Ellington J J, Crumley F G, Buettner K M, Evans J J, Blount B C, Silva L K, Waite T J, Luther G W, Mckague A B, Miltner R J, Wagner E D, Plewa M J. Occurrence and mammalian cell toxicity of iodinated disinfection byproducts in drinking water. Environmental Science & Technology, 2008, 42(22): 8330–8338

[97] Chen Z, Valentine R L. The influence of the pre-oxidation of natural organic matter on the formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Environmental Science & Technology, 2008, 42(14): 5062–5067

[98] Shah A D, Krasner S W, Lee C F T, von Gunten U, Mitch W A. Trade-offs in disinfection byproduct formation associated with precursor preoxidation for control of N-nitrosodimethylamine formation. Environmental Science & Technology, 2012, 46(9): 4809–4818

[99] Padhye L, Luzinova Y, Cho M, Mizaikoff B, Kim J H, Huang C H. PolyDADMAC and dimethylamine as precursors of N-nitrosodimethylamine during ozonation: reaction kinetics and mechanisms. Environmental Science & Technology, 2011, 45(10): 4353–4359

[100] Hoigne J, Bader H. The formation of trichloronitromethane (chloropicrin) and chloroform in a combined ozonation chlorination treatment of drinking-water. Water Research, 1988, 22(3): 313–319

[101] Bond T, Goslan E H, Parsons S A, Jefferson B. Treatment of disinfection by-product precursors. Environmental Technology, 2011, 32(1–2): 1–25

[102] Reckhow D A, Linden K G, Kim J, Shemer H, Makdissy G. Effect of UV treatment on DBP formation. Journal—American Water Works Association, 2010, 102(6): 100–113

[103] Shah A D, Dotson A D, Linden K G, Mitch W A. Impact of UV disinfection combined with chlorination/chloramination on the formation of halonitromethanes and haloacetonitriles in drinking water. Environmental Science & Technology, 2011, 45(8): 3657–3664

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg