Haloacetic acids in swimming pool and spa water in the United States and China

Abstract

The objective of this study is to investigate the occurrence of haloacetic acids (HAAs), a group of disinfection byproducts, in swimming pool and spa water. The samples were collected from six indoor pools, six outdoor pools and three spas in Pennsylvania, the United States, and from five outdoor pools and nine indoor pools in Beijing, China. Five HAAs (HAA5), including monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid were analyzed. Total chlorine, pH and total organic carbon concentration were analyzed as well. Results indicated that the levels of HAA5 in swimming pools and spas in the United States ranged from 70 to 3980 µg·L^-1, with an arithmetic average at 1440 µg·L^-1 and a median level at 1150 µg·L^-1. These levels are much higher than the levels reported in chlorinated drinking water and are likely due to organic matters released from swimmers’ bodies. The levels of HAA5 in swimming pools in China ranged from 13 to 332 µg·L^-1, with an arithmetic average at 117 µg·L^-1 and a median level at 114 µg·L^-1. The lower HAA levels in swimming pools in China were due to the lower chlorine residuals. Results from this study can help water professionals to better understand the formation and stability of HAAs in chlorinated water and assess risks associated with exposures to HAAs in swimming pools and spas.

Keywords

chlorination / disinfection byproduct / haloacetic acid / swimming pool / trihalomethane

References

[1] Nemery B, Hoet P H, Nowak D. Indoor swimming pools, water chlorination and respiratory health. European Respiratory Journal, 2002, 19(5): 790–793

[2] Powick P E J. Swimming pools-brief outline of water treatment and management. Water Science and Technology, 1989, 21(2): 151–160

[3] Zwiener C, Richardson S D, DeMarini D M, Grummt T, Glauner T, Frimmel F H. Drowning in disinfection byproducts? Assessing swimming pool water. Environmental Science & Technology, 2007, 41(2): 363–372

[4] Canelli E. Chemical, bacteriological, and toxicological properties of cyanuric acid and chlorinated isocyanurates as applied to swimming pool disinfection: a review. American Journal of Public Health, 1974, 64(2): 155–162

[5] Tang H. Disinfection byproduct precursors from wastewater organics: Formation potential and influence of biological treatment processes. Ph. D. Dissertation. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University, 2011

[6] Li J, Blatchley E R 3rd. Volatile disinfection byproduct formation resulting from chlorination of organic-nitrogen precursors in swimming pools. Environmental Science & Technology, 2007, 41(19): 6732–6739

[7] Karanfil T, Krasner S W, Westerhoff P, Xie Y. Recent advances in disinfection by-product formation, occurrence, control, health effects, and regulations. In: Karanfil T, Krasner SW, Westerhoff, P, Xie Y, eds. Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water: Occurrence, Formation, Health Effects, and Control. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 2008, 2–19

[8] World Health Organization. Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments, Volume 2, Swimming Pools and Similar Environments. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2006

[9] Sandel B B. Disinfection By-products in Swimming Pools and Spas (Technical Progress Report). Cheshire, Connecticut: Olin Corporation Research Center, 1990

[10] Fantuzzi G, Righi E, Predieri G, Ceppelli G, Gobba F, Aggazzotti G. Occupational exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools. Science of the Total Environment, 2001, 264(3): 257–265

[11] Chu H, Nieuwenhuijsen M J. Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2002, 59(4): 243–247

[12] Panyakapo M, Soontornchai S, Paopuree P. Cancer risk assessment from exposure to trihalomethanes in tap water and swimming pool water. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China), 2008, 20(3): 372–378

[13] Thacker N P, Nitnaware V. Factors influencing formation of trihalomethanes in swimming pool water. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2003, 71(3): 633–640

[14] Dyck R, Sadiq R, Rodriguez M J, Simard S, Tardif R. Trihalomethane exposures in indoor swimming pools: a level III fugacity model. Water Research, 2011, 45(16): 5084–5098

[15] Simard S, Tardif R, Rodriguez M J. Variability of chlorination by-product occurrence in water of indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Water Research, 2013, 47(5): 1763–1772

[16] Kim H, Shim J, Lee S. Formation of disinfection by-products in chlorinated swimming pool water. Chemosphere, 2002, 46(1): 123–130

[17] Judd S J, Bullock G. The fate of chlorine and organic materials in swimming pools. Chemosphere, 2003, 51(9): 869–879

[18] Villanueva C M, Cantor K P, Grimalt J O, Malats N, Silverman D, Tardon A, Garcia-Closas R, Serra C, Carrato A, Castaño-Vinyals G, Marcos R, Rothman N, Real F X, Dosemeci M, Kogevinas M. Bladder cancer and exposure to water disinfection by-products through ingestion, bathing, showering, and swimming in pools. American Journal of Epidemiology, 2007, 165(2): 148–156

[19] Florentin A, Hautemanière A, Hartemann P. Health effects of disinfection by-products in chlorinated swimming pools. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 2011, 214(6): 461–469

[20] Cardador M J, Gallego M. Haloacetic acids in swimming pools: swimmer and worker exposure. Environmental Science & Technology, 2011, 45(13): 5783–5790

[21] United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Method 552.3 Rev 1.0. Determination of haloacetic acid and dalapon in drinking water by liquid-liquid microextracion, derivation, and gas chromatography with electron capture detection. Ohio: Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, USPEA, 2003

[22] Obolensky A, Singer P C, Shukairy H M. Information collection rule data evaluation and analysis to support impacts on disinfection by-product formation. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 2007, 133(1): 53–63

[23] Kanan A, Karanfil T. Formation of disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pool water: the contribution from filling water natural organic matter and swimmer body fluids. Water Research, 2011, 45(2): 926–932

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51290284) and Ministry of Education and Science of Spain.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2014 Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg