Assessment of oxidative and UV-C treatments for inactivating bacterial biofilms from groundwater wells

Abstract

Microorganisms are ubiquitous in natural environments and in water supply infrastructure including groundwater wells. Sessile-state microorganisms may build up on well surfaces as biofilms and, if excessive, cause biofouling that reduces well productivity and water quality. Conditions can be improved using biocides and other traditional well rehabilitation measures; however, biofilm regrowth is inevitable given the continuous introduction of microorganisms from the surrounding environment. Alternative and less invasive well maintenance approaches are desirable for reducing biofilm densities while also minimizing harmful disinfection-by-products. The primary objective of this research was to evaluate effectiveness of alternative treatments for inactivating microorganisms comprising biofilms. A novel approach was designed for in situ growth of biofilms on steel coupons suspended from ‘chandeliers’. After more than 100 days of in situ growth, biofilms were harvested, sampled, and baseline biofilm densities quantified through cultivation. Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) and oxidative treatments including hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), ozone (O₃) and mixed oxidants were then applied to the biofilms in laboratory-scale treatments. Microbial inactivation was assessed by comparing treated versus baseline biofilm densities. H₂O₂ was the most effective treatment, and decreased density below baseline by as much as 3.1 orders of magnitude. Mixed oxidants were effective for the well having a lower density biofilm, decreasing density below baseline by as much as 1.4 orders of magnitude. Disparity in the response to treatment was apparent in the wells despite their spatial proximity and common aquifer source, which suggests that microbiological communities are more heterogeneous than the natural media from which they originate.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

aquifer / biofouling / hydrogen peroxide / sustainability / well rehabilitation

References

[1] Robertson J B, Edberg S C. Natural protection of spring and well drinking water against surface microbial contamination. I. Hydrogeological parameters. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 1997, 23(2): 143–178

[2] Craun M F, Craun G F, Calderon R L, Beach M J. Waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States. Journal of Water and Health, 2006, 4(Suppl 2): 19–30

[3] LeChevallier M W, Cawthon C D, Lee R G. Inactivation of biofilm bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 1988, 54(10): 2492–2499

[4] Batterman S, Zhang L, Wang S. Quenching of chlorination disinfection by-product formation in drinking water by hydrogen peroxide. Water Research, 2000, 34(5): 1652–1658

[5] Toor R, Mohseni M. UV-H₂O₂ based AOP and its integration with biological activated carbon treatment for DBP reduction in drinking water. Chemosphere, 2007, 66(11): 2087–2095

[6] Lakretz A, Ron E Z, Mamane H. Biofilm control in water by a UV-based advanced oxidation process. Biofouling, 2011, 27(3): 295–307

[7] Hall-Stoodley L, Costerton J W, Stoodley P. Bacterial biofilms: from the natural environment to infectious diseases. Nature Reviews. Microbiology, 2004, 2(2): 95–108

[8] Allison D G, Ruiz B, SanJose C, Jaspe A, Gilbert P. Extracellular products as mediators of the formation and detachment of Pseudomonas fluorescens biofilms. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 1998, 167(2): 179–184

[9] Wimpenny J, Manz W, Szewzyk U. Heterogeneity in biofilms. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 2000, 24(5): 661–671

[10] Allison D G. Exopolysaccharide production in bacterial biofilms. Biofilm Journal, 1998, 3, paper 2

[11] Costerton J W, Cheng K J, Geesey G G, Ladd T I, Nickel J C, Dasgupta M, Marrie T J. Bacterial biofilms in nature and disease. Annual Review of Microbiology, 1987, 41(1): 435–464

[12] Watnick P, Kolter R. Biofilm, city of microbes. Journal of Bacteriology, 2000, 182(10): 2675–2679

[13] Craun G F, Brunkard J M, Yoder J S, Roberts V A, Carpenter J, Wade T, Calderon R L, Roberts J M, Beach M J, Roy S L. Causes of outbreaks associated with drinking water in the United States from 1971 to 2006. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 2010, 23(3): 507–528

[14] Kenny J F, Barber N L, Hutson S S, Linsey K S, Lovelace J K, Maupin M A. Estimated use of water in the United States in 2005. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1344, Denver, CO, 2009, 52

[15] Flemming H C. Biofouling in water systems—cases, causes and countermeasures. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2002, 59(6): 629–640

[16] Page D, Miotliński K, Dillon P, Taylor R, Wakelin S, Levett K, Barry K, Pavelic P. Water quality requirements for sustaining aquifer storage and recovery operations in a low permeability fractured rock aquifer. Journal of Environmental Management, 2011, 92(10): 2410–2418

[17] Pavelic P, Dillon P J, Barry K E, Vanderzalm J L, Correll R L, Rinck-Pfeiffer S M. Water quality effects on clogging rates during reclaimed water ASR in a carbonate aquifer. Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam), 2007, 334(1–2): 1–16

[18] Momba M N B, Makala N. Comparing the effect of various pipe materials on biofilm formation in chlorinated and combined chlorine-chloraminated water systems. Water S.A., 2004, 30(2): 175–182

[19] Yu J, Kim D, Lee T. Microbial diversity in biofilms on water distribution pipes of different materials. Water Science and Technology, 2010, 61(1): 163–171

[20] Murray K E, Yosko L S. Multi-observation well aquifer test case study: is recovery coincident with the cessation of pumping? Environmental Earth Sciences, 2013, 68(7): 1955–1965

[21] Brockman F J, Murray C J. Subsurface microbiological heterogeneity: current knowledge, descriptive approaches and applications. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 1997, 20(3–4): 231–247

[22] Tang J, Johannesson K H. Controls on the geochemistry of rare earth elements along a groundwater flow path in the Carrizo Sand aquifer, Texas, USA. Chemical Geology, 2006, 225(1–2): 156–171

[23] Eaton A D, Clesceri L S, Rice E W, Greenberg A E, Franson M A H. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water & Wastewater(Centennial Edition), American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA), Washington, D C: Water Environment Federation (WEF), 2005

[24] Hawkins N J. Culturing and characterization of microorganisms in groundwater well biofilms using water chemistry and 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing. Dissertation for the Master Degree. San Antonio: University of Texas at San Antonio, 2007

[25] Manitou-Alvarez E I. Laboratory-scale treatment and microbial profiling of biofilms grown in water supply wells. Dissertation for the Master Degree. San Antonio: University of Texas at San Antonio, 2008

[26] DeQueiroz G A, Day D F. Antimicrobial activity and effectiveness of a combination of sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide in killing and removing Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms from surfaces. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2007, 103(4): 794–802

[27] Ishizaki K, Sawadaishi K, Miura K, Shinriki N. Effect of ozone on plasmid DNA of Escherichia coli in situ. Water Research, 1987, 21(7): 823–827

[28] Wolfe R L. Ultraviolet disinfection of potable water. Environmental Science & Technology, 1990, 24(6): 768–773

[29] Gonzalez C. On site mixed oxidants demonstrate benefits in Puerto Rico. Water Conditioning & Purification, 2002, 44(9): 62–65

[30] Hijnen W A M, Beerendonk E F, Medema G J. Inactivation credit of UV radiation for viruses, bacteria and protozoan (oo)cysts in water: a review. Water Research, 2006, 40(1): 3–22

[31] Xu P, Janex M L, Savoye P, Cockx A, Lazarova V. Wastewater disinfection by ozone: main parameters for process design. Water Research, 2002, 36(4): 1043–1055

[32] Bodour A A, Wang J M, Brusseau M L, Maier R M. Temporal change in culturable phenanthrene degraders in response to long-term exposure to phenanthrene in a soil column system. Environmental Microbiology, 2003, 5(10): 888–895

[33] Weisburg W G, Barns S M, Pelletier D A, Lane D J. 16S ribosomal DNA amplification for phylogenetic study. Journal of Bacteriology, 1991, 173(2): 697–703

[34] Gino E, Starosvetsky J, Kurzbaum E, Armon R. Combined chemical-biological treatment for prevention/rehabilitation of clogged wells by an iron-oxidizing bacterium. Environmental Science & Technology, 2010, 44(8): 3123–3129

[35] EPA. Drinking Water Guidance on Disinfection By-Products, Advice Note No. 4, version 2, Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water, Office of Environmental Enforcement: 2012,

[36] EPA. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Date Accessed: Jan 15, 2014

[37] Schmeisser C, Stöckigt C, Raasch C, Wingender J, Timmis K N, Wenderoth D F, Flemming H C, Liesegang H, Schmitz R A, Jaeger K E, Streit W R. Metagenome survey of biofilms in drinking-water networks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2003, 69(12): 7298–7309

[38] Vílchez R, Pozo C, Gómez M A, Rodelas B, González-López J. Dominance of sphingomonads in a copper-exposed biofilm community for groundwater treatment. Microbiology-SGM, 2007, 153(Pt 2): 325–337

[39] Norton C D, LeChevallier M W. A pilot study of bacteriological population changes through potable water treatment and distribution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2000, 66(1): 268–276

[40] Viera M R, Guiamet P S, de Mele M F L, Videla H A. Use of dissolved ozone for controlling planktonic and sessile bacteria in industrial cooling systems. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 1999, 44(4): 201–207

[41] Neyens E, Baeyens J, Dewil R, De heyder B. Advanced sludge treatment affects extracellular polymeric substances to improve activated sludge dewatering. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2004, 106(2-3): 83–92

[42] Pignatello J J, Oliveros E, MacKay A. Advanced oxidation processes for organic contaminant destruction based on the Fenton reaction and related chemistry. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2006, 36(1): 1–84

[43] Wang J L, Xu L J. Advanced oxidation processes for wastewater treatment: Formation of hydroxyl radical and application. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2011, 42(3): 251–325

[44] Mead J F. Free radical mechanisms of lipid damage and consequences for cellular membranes. In: Pryor WA, eds. Free Radicals in Biology. New York: Academic Press Inc., 1976, 51–68

[45] Storz G, Christman M F, Sies H, Ames B N. Spontaneous mutagenesis and oxidative damage to DNA in Salmonella typhimurium. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 1987, 84(24): 8917–8921

[46] Wolff S P, Garner A, Dean R T. Free radicals, lipids and protein degradation. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 1986, 11(1): 27–31

[47] Prince E L, Muir A V G, Thomas W M, Stollard R J, Sampson M, Lewis J A. An evaluation of the efficacy of Aqualox for microbiological control of industrial cooling tower systems. Journal of Hospital Infection, 2002, 52(4): 243–249

[48] Zhou H D, Smith D W. Ozone mass transfer in water and wastewater treatment: experimental observations using a 2D laser particle dynamics analyzer. Water Research, 2000, 34(3): 909–921

[49] Elasri M O, Miller R V. Study of the response of a biofilm bacterial community to UV radiation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 1999, 65(5): 2025–2031

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg