Advancement in membrane spacer technology: emerging trend and modification of three-dimensional printed membrane spacers for fouling mitigation

Abstract

Aside from being essential for human needs, water resources are also in demand by various industries to ensure the sustainability of economic development in countries. However, the supply of clean and affordable water is slowly depleting to the point where it becomes a major issue that requires significant attention. The membrane filtration system is an effective method for purifying water, with a high potential to provide clean water with minimal energy. The membrane spacer is a significant component in the membrane filtration system that considerably influences its performance. The dominant challenge in membrane spacers is fouling, mainly biofouling, which leads to unwanted consequences that drastically decrease the system’s performance. This review focuses on the advancements in membrane spacer technology through the modification of geometric design, selection of materials, and evaluation of their impact on fluid dynamics and biofouling. Additionally, the review provides insight into the utilization of three-dimensional printing methods and three-dimensional simulations in advancing membrane spacer technology.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

membrane spacer / fouling / geometric design / material / 3D printing

References

[1] Khalil A , Ahmed F E , Hilal N . The emerging role of 3D printing in water desalination. Science of the Total Environment, 2021, 790: 148238

[2] Lee M , Keller A A , Chiang P C , Den W , Wang H , Hou C H , Wu J , Wang X , Yan J . Water-energy nexus for urban water systems: a comparative review on energy intensity and environmental impacts in relation to global water risks. Applied Energy, 2017, 205: 589–601

[3] Banerjee P , Das R , Das P , Mukhopadhyay A . Membrane technology. Carbon Nanostructures, Berlin: Springer, 2018, 127–150

[4] Haddad A . Coping with water scarcity. Water and Wastewater International, 2007, 22(3): 1–10

[5] Madhura L , Kanchi S , Sabela M I , Singh S , Bisetty K . Membrane technology for water purification. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2018, 16(2): 343–365

[6] Rahmawati R , Bilad M R , Nawi N I M , Wibisono Y , Suhaimi H , Shamsuddin N , Arahman N . Engineered spacers for fouling mitigation in pressure driven membrane processes: progress and projection. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2021, 9(5): 106285

[7] Kamali M , Suhas D P , Costa M E , Capela I , Aminabhavi T M . Sustainability considerations in membrane-based technologies for industrial effluents treatment. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 368: 474–494

[8] Goh P S , Ismail A F . A review on inorganic membranes for desalination and wastewater treatment. Desalination, 2018, 434(7): 60–80

[9] Pan Z , Song C , Li L , Wang H , Pan Y , Wang C , Li J , Wang T , Feng X . Membrane technology coupled with electrochemical advanced oxidation processes for organic wastewater treatment: recent advances and future prospects. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 376: 120909

[10] Ying Y , Ying W , Li Q , Meng D , Ren G , Yan R , Peng X . Recent advances of nanomaterial-based membrane for water purification. Applied Materials Today, 2017, 7: 144–158

[11] Thiam B G , El Magri A , Vanaei H R , Vaudreuil S . 3D printed and conventional membranes: a review. Polymers, 2022, 14(5): 1023

[12] Xie M , Shon H K , Gray S R , Elimelech M . Membrane-based processes for wastewater nutrient recovery: technology, challenges, and future direction. Water Research, 2016, 89: 210–221

[13] Lin W , Zhang Y , Li D , Wang X , Huang X . Roles and performance enhancement of feed spacer in spiral wound membrane modules for water treatment: a 20-year review on research evolvement. Water Research, 2021, 198: 117146

[14] Ng V H , Koo C H , Chong W C , Tey J Y . Progress of 3D printed feed spacers for membrane filtration. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021, 46(5): 2070–2077

[15] Park H G , Cho S G , Kim K J , Kwon Y N . Effect of feed spacer thickness on the fouling behavior in reverse osmosis process: a pilot scale study. Desalination, 2016, 379: 155–163

[16] Jeong K , Park M , Oh S , Ha J . Impacts of flow channel geometry, hydrodynamic, and membrane properties on osmotic backwash of RO membranes—CFD modeling and simulation. Desalination, 2020, 476: 114229

[17] Luo J , Li M , Heng Y . A hybrid modeling approach for optimal design of non-woven membrane channels in brackish water reverse osmosis process with high-throughput computation. Desalination, 2020, 489: 114463

[18] Siebdrath N , Farhat N , Ding W , Kruithof J , Johannes S . Impact of membrane biofouling in the sequential development of performance indicators: feed channel pressure drop, permeability, and salt rejection. Journal of Membrane Science, 2019, 585: 199–207

[19] Kerdi S , Qamar A , Vrouwenvelder J S , Ghaffour N . Fouling resilient perforated feed spacers for membrane filtration. Water Research, 2018, 140: 211–219

[20] Ruiz-garcía A , Nuez I . Feed spacer geometries and permeability coefficients: effect on the performance in BWRO spriral-wound membrane modules. Water, 2019, 11(1): 152

[21] Koo J W , Ho J S , An J , Zhang Y , Chua C K , Chong T H . A review on spacers and membranes: conventional or hybrid additive manufacturing. Water Research, 2021, 188: 116497

[22] Abid H S , Johnson D J , Hashaikeh R , Hilal N . A review of efforts to reduce membrane fouling by control of feed spacer characteristics. Desalination, 2017, 420: 384–402

[23] Qian X , Anvari A , Hoek E M V , Mccutcheon J R . Advancements in conventional and 3D printed feed spacers in membrane modules. Desalination, 2023, 556: 116518

[24] Ali S M , Kim Y , Qamar A , Gayathri N , Phuntsho S , Noreddine G , Vrouwenvelder J S , Shon H K . Dynamic feed spacer for fouling minimization in forward osmosis process. Desalination, 2021, 515: 115198

[25] Siddiqui A , Lehmann S , Bucs S S , Fresquet M , Fel L , Prest E I E C , Ogier J , Schellenberg C , van Loosdrecht M C M , Kruithof J C . . Predicting the impact of feed spacer modification on biofouling by hydraulic characterization and biofouling studies in membrane fouling simulators. Water Research, 2017, 110: 281–287

[26] Park C , Kim J O . Performance of biofouling mitigating feed spacer by surface modification using quorum sensing inhibitor. Desalination, 2022, 538: 115904

[27] Ng C Y , Mohammad A W , Ng L Y , Jahim J M . Membrane fouling mechanisms during ultrafiltration of skimmed coconut milk. Journal of Food Engineering, 2014, 142: 190–200

[28] Choudhury M R , Anwar N , Jassby D , Rahaman M S . Fouling and wetting in the membrane distillation driven wastewater reclamation process: a review. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2019, 269: 370–399

[29] Alkhatib A , Ayari M A , Hawari A H . Fouling mitigation strategies for different foulants in membrane distillation. Chemical Engineering and Processing, 2021, 167: 108517

[30] Piyadasa C , Ridgway H F , Yeager T R , Stewart M B , Pelekani C , Gray S R , Orbell J D . The application of electromagnetic fields to the control of the scaling and biofouling of reverse osmosis membranes: a review. Desalination, 2017, 418: 19–34

[31] Goh P S , Lau W J , Othman M H D , Ismail A F . Membrane fouling in desalination and its mitigation strategies. Desalination, 2018, 425: 130–155

[32] Liu L , Xiao Z , Liu Y , Li X , Yin H , Volkov A , He T . Understanding the fouling/scaling resistance of superhydrophobic/omniphobic membranes in membrane distillation. Desalination, 2021, 499: 114864

[33] Ahmed M A , Amin S , Mohamed A A . Fouling in reverse osmosis membranes: monitoring, characterization, mitigation strategies, and future directions. Heliyon, 2023, 9(4): e14908

[34] Tang C Y , Chong T H , Fane A G . Colloidal interactions and fouling of NF and RO membranes: a review. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2011, 164(1–2): 126–143

[35] Adel M , Nada T , Amin S , Anwar T , Mohamed A A . Characterization of fouling for a full-scale seawater reverse osmosis plant on the Mediterranean sea: membrane autopsy and chemical cleaning efficiency. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 2022, 16: 100704

[36] Yang H , Ye S , Wang J , Wang H , Wang Z , Chen Q , Wang W , Xiang L , Zeng G , Tan X . The approaches and prospects for natural organic matter-derived disinfection byproducts control by carbon-based materials in water disinfection progresses. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 311: 127799

[37] Cai Y H , Galili N , Gelman Y , Herzberg M , Gilron J . Evaluating the impact of pretreatment processes on fouling of reverse osmosis membrane by secondary wastewater. Journal of Membrane Science, 2021, 623: 119054

[38] Ly Q V , Hu Y , Li J , Cho J , Hur J . Characteristics and influencing factors of organic fouling in forward osmosis operation for wastewater applications: a comprehensive review. Environment International, 2019, 129: 164–184

[39] Di Martino P . Extracellular polymeric substances, a key element in understanding biofilm phenotype. AIMS Microbiology, 2018, 4(2): 274–288

[40] FlemmingH CSchauleGMcDonoghRRidgwayH F. Biofouling and Biocorrosion in Industrial Water Systems. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1994, 63–105

[41] Baker J , Stephenson T , Dard S , Côté P . Characterisation of fouling of nanofiltration membranes used to treat surface waters. Environmental Technology, 1995, 16(10): 977–985

[42] Van Paassen J A M , Kruithoi J C , Bakker S M , Kegel F S . Integrated multi-objective membrane systems for surface water treatment: pre-treatment of nanofiltration by riverbank filtration and conventional ground water treatment. Desalination, 1998, 118(1–3): 239–248

[43] Ridgway H F . Membrane biofouling: an international workshop. National Water Research Institute Occasional Paper Number NWRI-97–3, 1997,

[44] Sreedhar N , Thomas N , Ghaffour N , Arafat H A . The evolution of feed spacer role in membrane applications for desalination and water treatment: a critical review and future perspective. Desalination, 2023, 554: 116505

[45] Kleinstreuer C . Modern Fluid Dynamics. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006, 2–3

[46] Ella H AE . AERO 4304: Computational Fluid Dynamics—Course Outline. Carleton University website, ,

[47] Vrouwenvelder J S , Graf von der Schulenburg D A , Kruithof J C , Johns M L , van Loosdrecht M C M . Biofouling of spiral-wound nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes: a feed spacer problem. Water Research, 2009, 43(3): 583–594

[48] Vrouwenvelder J S , van Paassen J A M , van Agtmaal J M C , van Loosdrecht M C M , Kruithof J C . A critical flux to avoid biofouling of spiral wound nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes: fact or fiction. Journal of Membrane Science, 2009, 326(1): 36–44

[49] de Vries H J , Kleibusch E , Hermes G D A , van den Brink P , Plugge C M . Biofouling control: the impact of biofilm dispersal and membrane flushing. Water Research, 2021, 198: 117163

[50] Flemming H C . Biofouling in water systems—cases, causes, and countermeasures. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2002, 59(6): 629–640

[51] Bucs S S , Farhat N , Kruithof J C , Picioreanu C , Van Loosdrecht M C M , Vrouwenvelder J S . Review on strategies for biofouling mitigation in spiral wound membrane systems. Desalination, 2018, 434: 189–197

[52] Kerdi S , Qamar A , Vrouwenvelder J S , Ghaffour N . Effect of localized hydrodynamics on biofilm attachment and growth in a cross-flow filtration channel. Water Research, 2021, 188: 116502

[53] AlSawaftah N , Abuwatfa W , Darwish N , Husseini G A . A review on membrane biofouling: prediction, characterization, and mitigation. Membranes, 2022, 12(12): 1271

[54] Nguyen T , Roddick F A , Fan L . Biofouling of water treatment membranes: a review of the underlying causes, monitoring techniques, and control measures. Membranes, 2012, 2(4): 804–840

[55] Jiang S , Li Y , Ladewig B P . A review of reverse osmosis membrane fouling and control strategies. Science of the Total Environment, 2017, 595: 567–583

[56] Chua S F , Nouri A , Ang W L , Mahmoudi E , Mohammad A W , Benamor A , Ba-Abbad M . The emergence of multifunctional adsorbents and their role in environmental remediation. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2021, 9(1): 104793

[57] Syron E , Semmens M J , Casey E . Performance analysis of a pilot-scale membrane aerated biofilm reactor for the treatment of landfill leachate. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2015, 273: 120–129

[58] Zare S , Kargari A . Membrane properties in membrane distillation. Emerging Technologies for Sustainable Desalination Handbook, 2018, 107–156

[59] Lin W C , Shao R P , Wang X M , Huang X . Impacts of non-uniform filament feed spacers characteristics on the hydraulic and anti-fouling performances in the spacer-filled membrane channels: experiment and numerical simulation. Water Research, 2020, 185: 116251

[60] Briand J F . Marine antifouling laboratory bioassays: an overview of their diversity. Biofouling, 2009, 25(4): 297–311

[61] Chua S F , Nouri A , Mahmoudi E , Lun W . Modified-graphene quantum dot thin-film nanocomposite membrane for enhanced nanofiltration performance and antifouling properties: minimal incorporation. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 2023, 53: 103664

[62] Mukherjee M , Bandyopadhyaya R . Silver nanoparticle impregnated polyethersulfone ultrafiltration membrane: optimization of degree of grafting of acrylic acid for biofouling prevention and improved water permeability. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2020, 8(2): 103711

[63] Ng L Y , Chua H S , Ng C Y . Incorporation of graphene oxide-based nanocomposite in the polymeric membrane for water and wastewater treatment: a review on recent development. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2021, 9(5): 105994

[64] Ng V H , Koo C H , Chong W C , Tey J Y . Progress of 3D printed feed spacers for membrane filtration. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2020, 46(5): 2070–2077

[65] Lin W , Li D , Wang Q , Wang X M , Huang X . Dynamic evolution of membrane biofouling in feed channels 2 affected by spacer-membrane clearance and the induced 3 hydrodynamic conditions. Journal of Membrane Science, 2023, 668: 121209

[66] Løge I A , Bentzon J R , Klingaa C G , Walther J H , Anabaraonye B U , Fosbøl P L . Scale attachment and detachment: the role of hydrodynamics and surface morphology. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2022, 430(2): 132583

[67] Jiang B , Hu B , Yang N , Zhang L , Sun Y , Xiao X . Study of turbulence promoters in prolonging membrane life. Membranes, 2021, 11(4): 268

[68] Al-Amshawee S K A , Mohd Yunus M Y B . Impact of membrane spacers on concentration polarization, flow profile, and fouling at ion exchange membranes of electrodialysis desalination: diagonal net spacer vs. ladder-type configuration. Chemical Engineering Research & Design, 2023, 191: 197–213

[69] Bhattacharjee C , Saxena V K , Dutta S . Static turbulence promoters in cross-flow membrane filtration: a review. Chemical Engineering Communications, 2020, 207(3): 413–433

[70] Zamani F , Chew J W , Akhondi E , Krantz W B , Fane A G . Unsteady-state shear strategies to enhance mass-transfer for the implementation of ultrapermeable membranes in reverse osmosis: a review. Desalination, 2015, 356: 328–348

[71] Awais M , Bhuiyan A A . Recent advancements in impedance of fouling resistance and particulate depositions in heat exchangers. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2019, 141: 580–603

[72] Du X , Wang Y , Leslie G , Li G , Liang H . Shear stress in a pressure-driven membrane system and its impact on membrane fouling from a hydrodynamic condition perspective: a review. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 2017, 92(3): 463–478

[73] Wray H E , Andrews R C , Bérubé P R . Surface shear stress and membrane fouling when considering natural water matrices. Desalination, 2013, 330: 22–27

[74] Koutsou C P , Yiantsios S G , Karabelas A J . A numerical and experimental study of mass transfer in spacer-filled channels: effects of spacer geometrical characteristics and Schmidt number. Journal of Membrane Science, 2009, 326(1): 234–251

[75] Kerdi S , Qamar A , Tanudjaja H J , Ghaffour N . Spacer designs for improved hydrodynamics and filtration efficiency in sea water reverse osmosis. Membranes, 2025, 15(1): 32

[76] Dendukuri D , Karode S K , Kumar A . Flow visualization through spacer filled channels by computational fluid dynamics-II: improved feed spacer designs. Journal of Membrane Science, 2005, 249(1–2): 41–49

[77] Armbruster S , Stockmeier F , Junker M , Schiller-Becerra M , Yüce S , Wessling M . Short and spaced twisted tapes to mitigate fouling in tubular membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 2020, 595: 117426

[78] Ibrahim A A , Dalle M A , Janasz F , Leyer S . Novel spacer geometries for membrane distillation mixing enhancement. Desalination, 2024, 580: 117513

[79] Yanar N , Liang Y , Yang E , Park H , Son M , Choi H . Electrically polarized graphene-blended spacers for organic fouling reduction in forward osmosis. Membranes, 2021, 11(1): 36

[80] Al-Obaidi M A , Rashid F L , Ameen A , Kadhom M , Mujtaba I M . Optimizing reverse osmosis feed spacer design for enhanced dimethylphenol removal from wastewater: a study of hydrodynamics and performance indicators. Water, 2024, 16(6): 895

[81] Joshi S R , Ray S S , Kim S , Kwon Y N . Potentiality of PLA 3D printed macro-structured feed spacers with a rational and facile layout for improved MD desalination performance. Chemical Engineering Research & Design, 2024, 203: 293–304

[82] Gu B , Adjiman C S , Xu X Y . The effect of feed spacer geometry on membrane performance and concentration polarisation based on 3D CFD simulations. Journal of Membrane Science, 2016, 2017(527): 78–91

[83] Marsono B D , Agustina I , Yuniarto A , Hermana J . Pressure and spacer effect on the performance of immersed microfiltration membrane. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2022, 1111(1): 012063

[84] Mehdizadeh S , Yasukawa M , Abo T , Kakihana Y , Higa M . Effect of spacer geometry on membrane and solution compartment resistances in reverse electrodialysis. Journal of Membrane Science, 2019, 572: 271–280

[85] Li F , Meindersma W , De Haan A B , Reith T . Novel spacers for mass transfer enhancement in membrane separations. Journal of Membrane Science, 2005, 253(1–2): 1–12

[86] Mahdieh H A , Talebbeydokhti N , Afzali S H , Karimi-Jashni A . Development and evaluation of a novel feed spacer for forward osmosis membrane. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2022, 159: 874–886

[87] Ali S M , Qamar A , Kerdi S , Phuntsho S , Vrouwenvelder J S , Ghaffour N , Shon H K . Energy efficient 3D printed column type feed spacer for membrane filtration. Water Research, 2019, 164: 114961

[88] Kerdi S , Qamar A , Alpatova A , Vrouwenvelder J S , Ghaffour N . Membrane filtration performance enhancement and biofouling mitigation using symmetric spacers with helical filaments. Desalination, 2020, 484: 114454

[89] Qamar A , Kerdi S , Ali S M , Shon H K , Vrouwenvelder J S , Ghaffour N . Novel hole-pillar spacer design for improved hydrodynamics and biofouling mitigation in membrane filtration. Scientific Reports, 2021, 11(1): 6979

[90] AlQattan J , Kim Y , Kerdi S , Qamar A , Ghaffour N . Hole-type spacers for more stable shale gas-produced water treatment by forward osmosis. Membranes, 2021, 11(1): 34

[91] Park S , Jeong Y D , Lee J H , Kim J , Jeong K , Cho K H . 3D printed honeycomb-shaped feed channel spacer for membrane fouling mitigation in nanofiltration. Journal of Membrane Science, 2021, 620: 118665

[92] Tan Y Z , Ang E H , Chew J W . Metallic spacers to enhance membrane distillation. Journal of Membrane Science, 2018, 2019(572): 171–183

[93] Thamaraiselvan C , Carmiel Y , Eliad G , Sukenik C N , Semiat R , Dosoretz C G . Modification of a polypropylene feed spacer with metal oxide-thin film by chemical bath deposition for biofouling control in membrane filtration. Journal of Membrane Science, 2019, 573: 511–519

[94] Thamaraiselvan C , Manderfeld E , Rosenhahn A , Arnusch C J . Superhydrophobic candle soot as a low fouling stable coating on water treatment membrane feed spacers. ACS Applied Bio Materials, 2021, 4(5): 4191–4200

[95] Taiswa A , Andriolo J M , Zodrow K R , Skinner J L . Polydopamine-copper spacers improve longevity and prevent biofouling in reverse osmosis. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 2022, 22(10): 7782–7793

[96] Tan J X , Foo K , Lau W J , Chua S F , Rahim M H A , Ahmad A L , Liang Y Y . Hydrophilic modification of feed spacer and its impacts on antifouling performance of reverse osmosis membrane. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2024, 19(6): e3134

[97] Ronen A , Semiat R , Dosoretz C G . Impact of ZnO embedded feed spacer on biofilm development in membrane systems. Water Research, 2013, 47(17): 6628–6638

[98] Ronen A , Lerman S , Ramon G Z , Dosoretz C G . Experimental characterization and numerical simulation of the anti-biofuling activity of nanosilver-modified feed spacers in membrane filtration. Journal of Membrane Science, 2015, 475: 320–329

[99] Wibisono Y , Yandi W , Golabi M , Nugraha R , Cornelissen E R , Kemperman A J B , Ederth T , Nijmeijer K . Hydrogel-coated feed spacers in two-phase flow cleaning in spiral wound membrane elements: anovel platform for eco-friendly biofouling mitigation. Water Research, 2015, 71: 171–186

[100] Ronen A , Resnick A , Lerman S , Eisen M S , Dosoretz C G . Biofouling suppression of modified feed spacers: localized and long-distance antibacterial activity. Desalination, 2016, 393: 159–165

[101] Jab M , Menzel M , Hirsch U , Heilmann A . Assessment of anti-bacterial adhesion and anti-biofouling potential of plasma-mediated poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate) coatings of feed spacer. Desalination, 2020, 493(4): 114664

[102] Pisharody L , Thamaraiselvan C , Manderfeld E , Singh S P , Rosenhahn A , Arnusch C J . Antimicrobial and antibiofouling electrically conducting laser-induced graphene spacers in reverse osmosis membrane modules. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2022, 9(33): 2201443

[103] Kitano H , Takeuchi K , Ortiz-medina J , Cruz-silva R , Morelos-gomez A , Fujii M , Obata M , Yamanaka A , Tejima S , Fujishige M . . Enhanced antifouling feed spacer made from a carbon nanotube-polypropylene nanocomposite. ACS Omega, 2019, 4(13): 15496–15503

[104] Ibrahim Y , Hilal N . The potentials of 3D-printed feed spacers in reducing the environmental footprint of membrane separation processes. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2023, 11(1): 109249

[105] Yanar N , Son M , Yang E , Kim Y , Park H , Nam S E , Choi H . Investigation of the performance behavior of a forward osmosis membrane system using various feed spacer materials fabricated by 3D printing technique. Chemosphere, 2018, 202: 708–715

[106] Yanar N , Park H , Son M , Choi H . Efficacy of electrically-polarized 3D printed graphene-blended spacers on the flux enhancement and scaling resistance of water filtration membranes. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2021, 9(19): 6623–6631

[107] Ibrahim Y , Hilal N . Integration of porous and permeable poly(ether sulfone) feed spacer onto membrane surfaces via direct 3D printing. ACS Applied Engineering Materials, 2024, 2(4): 1094–1109

[108] Thomas N , Sreedhar N , Al-Ketan O , Rowshan R , Abu Al-Rub R K , Arafat H . 3D printed spacers based on TPMS architectures for scaling control in membrane distillation. Journal of Membrane Science, 2019, 581: 38–49

[109] Castillo E H C , Thomas N , Al-Ketan O , Rowshan R , Abu Al-Rub R K , Nghiem L D , Vigneswaran S , Arafat H A , Naidu G . 3D printed spacers for organic fouling mitigation in membrane distillation. Journal of Membrane Science, 2019, 581: 331–343

[110] Sreedhar N , Thomas N , Al-Ketan O , Rowshan R , Abu Al-Rub R K , Hong S , Arafat H A . Impacts of feed spacer design on UF membrane cleaning efficiency. Journal of Membrane Science, 2020, 616: 118571

[111] Wee J , Shin J , Zen Y , See W , An J , Zhang Y , Kai C , Haur T . Fouling mitigation in reverse osmosis processes with 3D printed sinusoidal spacers. Water Research, 2021, 207: 117818

[112] Dang B Van , Charlton A J , Li Q , Kim Y C , Taylor R A , Le-Clech P , Barber T . Can 3D-printed spacers improve filtration at the microscale. Separation and Purification Technoly, 2021, 256: 117776

[113] Thomas N , Kumar M , Palmisano G , Al-rub R K A , Alnuaimi R Y , Alhseinat E , Rowshan R , Arafat H A , Platforms C T , York N . . Antiscaling 3D printed feed spacers via facile nanoparticle coating for membrane distillation. Water Research, 2021, 189: 116649

[114] Thomas N , Swaminathan J , Zaragoza G , Abu Al-Rub R K , Lienhard V J H , Arafat H A . Comparative assessment of the effects of 3D printed feed spacers on process performance in MD systems. Desalination, 2021, 503: 114940

[115] Khalil A , Ahmed F E , Hashaikeh R , Hilal N . 3D printed electrically conductive interdigitated spacer on ultrafiltration membrane for electrolytic cleaning and chlorination. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2022, 139(23): 52292

[116] Yu J , Chen D , Wu J J , Wang B , Field R W . Arch-type feed spacer with wide passage node design for spiral-wound membrane filtration with reduced energy cost. Desalination, 2022, 540: 115980

[117] Suresh K , Nambikkattu J , Kaleekkal N J , Lawrence K D . Custom-designed 3D printed feed spacers and TFN membranes with MIL-101(Fe) for water recovery by forward osmosis. Environmental Technology, 2024, 45(19): 3778–3790

[118] Almarzooqi N , Hong S , Verma P , Shaheen A , Schiffer A , AlMarzooqi F . Photothermal surface heating membrane distillation using 3D-printed Ti₃C₂T_x MXene-based nanocomposite spacers. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2023, 15(17): 20998–21007

[119] Jeong S , Gu B , Choi S , Ahn S kyun , Lee J , Lee J , Jeong S . Engineered multi-scale roughness of carbon nanofiller-embedded 3D printed spacers for membrane distillation. Water Research, 2023, 231: 119649

[120] Qamar A , Kerdi S , Vrouwenvelder J S , Ghaffour N . Airfoil-shaped filament feed spacer for improved filtration performance in water treatment. Scientific Reports, 2023, 13(1): 10798

[121] Lv Y , Du Y , Qiu W Z , Xu Z K . Nanocomposite membranes via the codeposition of polydopamine/polyethylenimine with silica nanoparticles for enhanced mechanical strength and high water permeability. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2017, 9(3): 2966–2972

[122] Coakley M , Hurt D E . 3D printing in the laboratory: maximize time and funds with customized and open-source labware. SLAS Technology, 2016, 21(4): 489–495

[123] Awad A , Fina F , Goyanes A , Gaisford S , Basit A W . 3D printing: principles and pharmaceutical applications of selective laser sintering. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 2020, 586: 119594

[124] Zhuang Y , Guo Y , Li J , Jiang K , Zhang H , Meng D . Study on process and parameter optimisation of selective laser sintering of thermoplastic polyurethane/carbon nanotube powder. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2021, 116(3–4): 993–1001

[125] Campbell C G , Astorga D J , Martinez E , Celina M . Selective laser sintering (SLS)-printable thermosetting resins via controlled conversion. MRS Communications, 2021, 11(2): 173–178

[126] Yuan S , Strobbe D , Kruth J P , Van Puyvelde P , Van der Bruggen B . Production of polyamide-12 membranes for microfiltration through selective laser sintering. Journal of Membrane Science, 2017, 525: 157–162

[127] Tan W S , Chua C K , Chong T H , Fane A G , Jia A . 3D printing by selective laser sintering of polypropylene feed channel spacers for spiral wound membrane modules for the water industry. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2016, 11(3): 151–158

[128] Yang F , Zobeiry N , Mamidala R , Chen X . A review of aging, degradation, and reusability of PA12 powders in selective laser sintering additive manufacturing. Materials Today: Communications, 2023, 34: 105279

[129] Al-Shimmery A , Mazinani S , Ji J , Chew Y M J , Mattia D . 3D printed composite membranes with enhanced anti-fouling behaviour. Journal of Membrane Science, 2018, 2019(574): 76–85

[130] Yuan S , Strobbe D , Li X , Kruth J P , van Puyvelde P , van der Bruggen B . 3D printed chemically and mechanically robust membrane by selective laser sintering for separation of oil/water and immiscible organic mixtures. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 385: 123816

[131] Sun P , Zhang L , Tao S . Preparation of hybrid chitosan membranes by selective laser sintering for adsorption and catalysis. Materials & Design, 2019, 173: 107780

[132] Xu Y , Wu X , Guo X , Kong B , Zhang M , Qian X , Mi S , Sun W . The boom in 3D-printed sensor technology. Sensors, 2017, 17(5): 1166

[133] Kim S G , Song J E , Kim H R . Development of fabrics by digital light processing three-dimensional printing technology and using a polyurethane acrylate photopolymer. Textile Research Journal, 2020, 90(7–8): 847–856

[134] Riahi M . Fabrication of corner cube array retro-reflective structure with DLP-based 3D printing technology. Optical Review, 2016, 23(3): 442–447

[135] Monzón M , Ortega Z , Hernández A , Paz R , Ortega F . Anisotropy of photopolymer parts made by digital light processing. Materials, 2017, 10(1): 64

[136] Chen T , Wang D , Chen X , Qiu M , Fan Y . Three-dimensional printing of high-flux ceramic membranes with an asymmetric structure via digital light processing. Ceramics International, 2022, 48(1): 304–312

[137] Udroiu R , Braga I C . Polyjet technology applications for rapid tooling. MATEC Web of Conferences, 2017, 112: 1–6

[138] Lee J Y , Tan W S , An J , Chua C K , Tang C Y , Fane A G , Chong T H . The potential to enhance membrane module design with 3D printing technology. Journal of Membrane Science, 2016, 499: 480–490

[139] Siddiqui A , Farhat N , Bucs S S , Linares R V , Picioreanu C , Kruithof J C , van Loosdrecht M C M , Kidwell J , Vrouwenvelder J S . Development and characterization of 3D-printed feed spacers for spiral wound membrane systems. Water Research, 2016, 91: 55–67

[140] Yanar N , Son M , Park H , Choi H . Bio-mimetically inspired 3D-printed honeycombed support (spacer) for the reduction of reverse solute flux and fouling of osmotic energy driven membranes. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2020, 83: 343–350

[141] Tan W S , Suwarno S R , An J , Chua C K , Fane A G , Chong T H . Comparison of solid, liquid and powder forms of 3D printing techniques in membrane spacer fabrication. Journal of Membrane Science, 2017, 537: 283–296

[142] Lam C X F , Mo X M , Teoh S H , Hutmacher D W . Scaffold development using 3D printing with a starch-based polymer. Materials Science and Engineering C, 2002, 20(1–2): 49–56

[143] Mandala R , Bannoth A P , Akella S , Rangari V K , Kodali D . A short review on fused deposition modeling 3D printing of bio-based polymer nanocomposites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2022, 139(14): 51904

[144] Moradi M , Meiabadi S , Kaplan A . 3D printed parts with honeycomb internal pattern by fused deposition modelling; experimental characterization and production optimization. Metals and Materials International, 2019, 25(5): 1312–1325

[145] Sathies T , Senthil P , Anoop M S . A review on advancements in applications of fused deposition modelling process. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2020, 26(4): 669–687

[146] Tamir T S , Xiong G , Fang Q , Dong X . A feedback-based print quality improving strategy for FDM 3D printing: an optimal design approach. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2021, 120: 2777–2791

[147] Noraihan T , Tuan A , Abdullah A M , Akil H . Recent developments in fused deposition modeling-based 3D printing of polymers and their composites. Polymer Reviews, 2019, 59(4): 1–36

[148] PlymillAMinneciRGreeleyD A. Graphene and carbon nanotube PLA composite feedstock development for fused deposition modeling. Chancellor’s Honors Program Projects. Knoxville: Univerity of Tennessee, 2016, 4–5

[149] Ning F , Cong W , Hu Y , Wang H . Additive manufacturing of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic composites using fused deposition modeling: effects of process parameters on tensile properties. Journal of Composite Materials, 2017, 51(4): 451–462

[150] Mazzanti V , Malagutti L , Mollica F . FDM 3D printing of polymers containing natural fillers: a review of their mechanical properties. Polymers, 2019, 11(7): 1094

[151] Mohamed O A , Hasan S , Bhowmik J L . Studies on effect of fused deposition modelling process parameters on ultimate tensile strength and dimensional accuracy of nylon. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2016, 149(1): 012035

[152] Wickramasinghe S , Do T , Tran P . FDM-based 3D printing of polymer and associated composite: a review on mechanical properties, defects, and treatments. Polymers, 2020, 12(7): 1529

[153] Jayanth N , Senthil P , Prakash C . Effect of chemical treatment on tensile strength and surface roughness of 3D-printed ABS using the FDM process. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2018, 13(3): 155

[154] Han T , Kundu S , Nag A , Xu Y . 3D printed sensors for biomedical applications: a review. Sensors, 2019, 19(7): 1706

[155] Balogun H A , Sulaiman R , Marzouk S S , Giwa A , Hasan S W . 3D printing and surface imprinting technologies for water treatment: a review. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 2019, 31(2): 100786

[156] Kumar A V . A review paper on 3D-printing and various processes used in the 3D-printing. Interantional Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management, 2022, 6(5): 953–958

[157] Puzatova A , Shakor P , Laghi V , Dmitrieva M . Large-scale 3D printing for construction application by means of robotic arm and gantry 3D printer: a review. Buildings, 2022, 12(11): 2023

[158] Xiao J , Ji G , Zhang Y , Ma G , Mechtcherine V , Pan J , Wang L , Ding T , Duan Z , Du S . Large-scale 3D printing concrete technology: current status and future opportunities. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2021, 122: 104115

[159] Zuo Z , De Corte W , Huang Y , Chen X , Zhang Y , Li J , Zhang L , Xiao J , Yuan Y , Zhang K . . Strategies towards large-scale 3D printing without size constraints. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2024, 19(1): e2346821

[160] Low Z X , Chua Y T , Ray B M , Mattia D , Metcalfe I S , Patterson D A . Perspective on 3D printing of separation membranes and comparison to related unconventional fabrication techniques. Journal of Membrane Science, 2017, 523: 596–613

[161] DePalma K , Walluk M R , Murtaugh A , Hilton J , McConky S , Hilton B . Assessment of 3D printing using fused deposition modeling and selective laser sintering for a circular economy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 264: 121567

[162] SiddiqueT H MSamiINisarM ZNaeemMKarimAUsmanM. Low cost 3D printing for rapid prototyping and its application. In: 2019 2nd International Conference on Latest Trends in Electrical Engineering and Computing Technologies. Islamabad: Institute of Electrical and Electronis Engineers, 2019, 1–5

[163] Kazmer D , Peterson A M , Masato D , Colon A R , Krantz J . Strategic cost and sustainability analyses of injection molding and material extrusion additive manufacturing. Polymer Engineering and Science, 2023, 63(3): 943–958

[164] Guillen G , Hoek E M V . Modeling the impacts of feed spacer geometry on reverse osmosis and nanofiltration processes. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2009, 149(1–3): 221–231

[165] Li Y L , Tung K L . CFD simulation of fluid flow through spacer-filled membrane module: selecting suitable cell types for periodic boundary conditions. Desalination, 2008, 233(1–3): 351–358

[166] Fimbres-Weihs G A , Wiley D E . Review of 3D CFD modeling of flow and mass transfer in narrow spacer-filled channels in membrane modules. Chemical Engineering and Processing, 2010, 49(7): 759–781

[167] Bucs S S , Radu A I , Lavric V , Vrouwenvelder J S , Picioreanu C . Effect of different commercial feed spacers on biofouling of reverse osmosis membrane systems: a numerical study. Desalination, 2014, 343: 26–37

[168] Salcedo-Díaz R , García-Algado P , García-Rodríguez M , Fernández-Sempere J , Ruiz-Beviá F . Visualization and modeling of the polarization layer in crossflow reverse osmosis in a slit-type channel. Journal of Membrane Science, 2014, 456: 21–30

[169] Radu A I , Bergwerff L , van Loosdrecht M C M , Picioreanu C . A two-dimensional mechanistic model for scaling in spiral wound membrane systems. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2014, 241: 77–91

[170] Foo K , Liang Y Y , Weihs G A F . CFD study of the effect of SWM feed spacer geometry on mass transfer enhancement driven by forced transient slip velocity. Journal of Membrane Science, 2020, 597: 117643

[171] Chong Y K , Liang Y Y , Weihs G A F . Validation and characterisation of mass transfer of 3D-CFD model for twisted feed spacer. Desalination, 2023, 554: 116516

[172] Chong Y K , Liang Y Y , Lau W J , Fimbres Weihs G A . 3D CFD study of hydrodynamics and mass transfer phenomena for spiral wound membrane submerged-type feed spacer with different node geometries and sizes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2022, 191: 122819

[173] OkerekeMKeatesS. In: finite element applications. Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering. Cham: Springer, 2018, 243–297

[174] Lou J , Johnston J , Cath T Y , Martinand D , Tilton N . Computational fluid dynamics simulations of unsteady mixing in spacer-filled direct contact membrane distillation channels. Journal of Membrane Science, 2021, 622: 118931

[175] Gu B , Adjiman C S , Xu X Y . Correlations for concentration polarization and pressure drop in spacer-filled RO membrane modules based on CFD simulations. Membranes, 2021, 11(5): 338

[176] Lipnizki F , Lipnizki J , Hjertager B H , Hansen R , Hvidberg J , Solberg T , Ibsen C H , Jonsson G . Membrane spacers for ultrafiltration: modelling of mass transfer and pressure. In: IMSTEC '03 - The 5th Int Membrane Science and Technology Conference. Sydney: University of New South Wales, 2003,

[177] El Kadi K , Janajreh I , Hashaikeh R . Numerical simulation and evaluation of spacer-filled direct contact membrane distillation module. Applied Water Science, 2020, 10(7): 174

[178] Ahmad A L , Lau K K . Impact of different spacer filaments geometries on 2D unsteady hydrodynamics and concentration polarization in spiral wound membrane channel. Journal of Membrane Science, 2006, 286(1–2): 77–92

[179] Subramani A , Kim S , Hoek E M V . Pressure, flow, and concentration profiles in open and spacer-filled membrane channels. Journal of Membrane Science, 2006, 277(1–2): 7–17

[180] Picioreanu C , Vrouwenvelder J S , van Loosdrecht M C M . Three-dimensional modeling of biofouling and fluid dynamics in feed spacer channels of membrane devices. Journal of Membrane Science, 2009, 345(1–2): 340–354

[181] Kavianipour O , Ingram G D , Vuthaluru H B . Investigation into the effectiveness of feed spacer configurations for reverse osmosis membrane modules using computational fluid dynamics. Journal of Membrane Science, 2017, 526: 156–171

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s) 2025. This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep.com.cn