Synergistic technologies for a circular economy: upcycling waste plastics and biomass

Abstract

The urgent need for sustainable waste management has led to the exploration of upcycling waste plastics and biomass as viable solutions. In 2018, global plastic production reached 359 million tonnes, with an estimated 12000 million tonnes projected to be delivered and disposed of in landfills by 2050. Unfortunately, current waste management practices result in only 19.5% of plastics being recycled, while the rest is either landfilled (55%) or incinerated (25.5%). The improper disposal of plastics contributes to issues such as soil and groundwater contamination, air pollution, and wildlife disturbance. On the other hand, biomass has the potential to deliver around 240 exajoules of energy per year by 2060. However, its current utilization remains relatively small, with only approximately 9% of biomass-derived energy being consumed in Europe in 2017. This review explores various upcycling methods for waste plastics and biomass, including mechanical, chemical, biological, and thermal approaches. It also highlights the applications of upcycled plastics and biomass in sectors such as construction, packaging, energy generation, and chemicals. The environmental and economic benefits of upcycling are emphasized, including the reduction of plastic pollution, preservation of natural resources, carbon footprint reduction, and circular economy advancement.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

waste management / plastic waste / biomass / upcycling / economic benefits / circular economy

References

[1] Bhattacharya P , Aziz R A , Karmaker C L , Bari A B M M . A fuzzy synthetic evaluation approach to assess the risks associated with municipal waste management: implications for sustainability. Green Technologies and Sustainability, 2024, 2(2): 100087

[2] Hibino T , Kobayashi K , Teranishi S , Hitomi T . Solid oxide fuel cell using municipal solid waste directly as fuel: biomass, resin, plastic, and food waste. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2021, 9(8): 3124–3136

[3] Du Y F , Ju T Y , Meng Y , Lan T , Han S Y , Jiang J G . A review on municipal solid waste pyrolysis of different composition for gas production. Fuel Processing Technology, 2021, 224: 107026

[4] Wang Z W , Burra K G , Lei T Z , Gupta A K . Co-pyrolysis of waste plastic and solid biomass for synergistic production of biofuels and chemicals—a review. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2021, 84: 100899

[5] Yek P N Y , Chan Y H , Foong S Y , Mahari W A W , Chen X , Liew R K , Ma N L , Tsang Y F , Sonne C , Cheng Y W . . Co-processing plastics waste and biomass by pyrolysis-gasification: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2024, 22(1): 171–188

[6] Nawaz A , Razzak S A . Co-pyrolysis of biomass and different plastic waste to reduce hazardous waste and subsequent production of energy products: a review on advancement, synergies, and future prospects. Renewable Energy, 2024, 224: 120103

[7] Block C , Ephraim A , Weiss-Hortala E , Minh D P , Nzihou A , Vandecasteele C . Co-pyrogasification of plastics and biomass, a review. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 2019, 10(3): 483–509

[8] Kumar R , Verma A , Shome A , Sinha R , Sinha S , Jha P K , Kumar R , Kumar P , Shubham S . . Impacts of plastic pollution on ecosystem services, sustainable development goals, and need to focus on circular economy and policy interventions. Sustainability, 2021, 13(17): 9963

[9] Ojha D K , Vinu R . Copyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass with waste plastics for resource recovery. In: Bhaskar T, Pandey A, Mohan S V, Lee D J, Khanal S K, eds. Waste Biorefinery: Potential and Perspectives. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2018, 349–391

[10] Lombardi L , Carnevale E , Corti A . A review of technologies and performances of thermal treatment systems for energy recovery from waste. Waste Management, 2015, 37: 26–44

[11] Lee K , Jing Y , Wang Y , Yan N . A unified view on catalytic conversion of biomass and waste plastics. Nature Reviews. Chemistry, 2022, 6(9): 635–652

[12] Malico I , Nepomuceno Pereira R , Gonçalves A C , Sousa A M O . Current status and future perspectives for energy production from solid biomass in the European industry. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2019, 112: 960–977

[13] Mishra R K , Mohanty K . Pyrolysis kinetics and thermal behavior of waste sawdust biomass using thermogravimetric analysis. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 251: 63–74

[14] Peng X X , Jiang Y S , Chen Z H , Osman A I , Farghali M , Rooney D W , Yap P S . Recycling municipal, agricultural and industrial waste into energy, fertilizers, food and construction materials, and economic feasibility: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2023, 21(2): 765–801

[15] Korhonen J , Honkasalo A , Seppälä J . Circular economy: the concept and its limitations. Ecological Economics, 2018, 143: 37–46

[16] Kumar M , Bhujbal S K , Kohli K , Prajapati R , Sharma B K , Sawarkar A D , Abhishek K , Bolan S , Ghosh P , Kirkham M B . . A review on value-addition to plastic waste towards achieving a circular economy. Science of the Total Environment, 2024, 921: 171106

[17] Bhujbal S K , Ghosh P , Vijay V K , Rathour R , Kumar M , Singh L , Kapley A . Biotechnological potential of rumen microbiota for sustainable bioconversion of lignocellulosic waste to biofuels and value-added products. Science of the Total Environment, 2022, 814: 152773

[18] Kots P A , Vance B C , Vlachos D G . Polyolefin plastic waste hydroconversion to fuels, lubricants, and waxes: a comparative study. Reaction Chemistry & Engineering, 2021, 7(1): 41–54

[19] Sajwan D , Sharma A , Sharma M , Krishnan V . Upcycling of plastic waste using photo-, electro-, and photoelectrocatalytic approaches: a way toward circular economy. ACS Catalysis, 2024, 14(7): 4865–4926

[20] KayT. Salvo in Germany-Reiner Pilz. SalvoNEWS, 1994: 11–14

[21] Manickam P , Duraisamy G . 3Rs and circular economy. In: Muthu S S, ed. Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel: Processing, Manufacturing, and Design. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2019, 77–93

[22] XuJGuP. Five principles of waste product redesign under the upcycling concept. In: 2015 International Forum on Energy, Environment Science and Materials, 2015. Paris: Atlantis Press, 2015, 1238–1243

[23] McDonoughWBraungartM. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York: North Point Press, 2010

[24] Kirchherr J , Reike D , Hekkert M . Conceptualizing the circular economy: an analysis of 114 definitions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2017, 127: 221–232

[25] Osman A I , Abdelkader A , Farrell C , Rooney D , Morgan K . Reusing, recycling and up-cycling of biomass: a review of practical and kinetic modelling approaches. Fuel Processing Technology, 2019, 192: 179–202

[26] Hassan M , Mohanty A K , Misra M . 3D printing in upcycling plastic and biomass waste to sustainable polymer blends and composites: a review. Materials & Design, 2024, 237: 112558

[27] Geyer R , Jambeck J R , Law K L . Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, 2017, 3(7): e1700782

[28] Peng M , Wu Q , Gao S , Liu Y , Zeng J , Ruan Y . Distribution and characteristics of microplastics in an urban river: the response to urban waste management. Science of the Total Environment, 2023, 905: 166638

[29] Demirbaş A . Biomass resource facilities and biomass conversion processing for fuels and chemicals. Energy Conversion and Management, 2001, 42(11): 1357–1378

[30] Zhang D , Bui M , Fajardy M , Patrizio P , Kraxner F , Mac Dowell N . Unlocking the potential of BECCS with indigenous sources of biomass at a national scale. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 2020, 4(1): 226–253

[31] Schwarz A , Ligthart T , Boukris E , Van Harmelen T . Sources, transport, and accumulation of different types of plastic litter in aquatic environments: a review study. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2019, 143: 92–100

[32] Hussein Z A , Shakor Z M , Alzuhairi M , Al-Sheikh F . Thermal and catalytic cracking of plastic waste: a review. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 2023, 103(17): 5920–5937

[33] Roosen M , Mys N , Kusenberg M , Billen P , Dumoulin A , Dewulf J , Van Geem K M , Ragaert K , De Meester S . Detailed analysis of the composition of selected plastic packaging waste products and its implications for mechanical and thermochemical recycling. Environmental Science & Technology, 2020, 54(20): 13282–13293

[34] Andrady A L . Microplastics in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2011, 62(8): 1596–1605

[35] Jambeck J R , Geyer R , Wilcox C , Siegler T R , Perryman M , Andrady A , Narayan R , Law K L . Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 2015, 347(6223): 768–771

[36] Lebreton L , Slat B , Ferrari F , Sainte-Rose B , Aitken J , Marthouse R , Hajbane S , Cunsolo S , Schwarz A , Levivier A . . Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic. Scientific Reports, 2018, 8(1): 1–15

[37] Lavers J L , Bond A L . Exceptional and rapid accumulation of anthropogenic debris on one of the world’s most remote and pristine islands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2017, 114(23): 6052–6055

[38] Phuong N N , Zalouk-Vergnoux A , Poirier L , Kamari A , Châtel A , Mouneyrac C , Lagarde F . Is there any consistency between the microplastics found in the field and those used in laboratory experiments. Environmental Pollution, 2016, 211: 111–123

[39] Grace R . Closing the circle: reshaping how products are conceived & made: Ideo & Ellen MacArthur Foundation create an outline for a New Plastics Economy & launch a Circular Design Guide to help. Plastics Engineering, 2017, 73(3): 8–11

[40] GearyS. The plastic crisis goes public: representations of plastic pollution in environmental media. Thesis for the Master’s Degree. Florida: University of Miami, 2019

[41] Naeini M , Mohammadinia A , Arulrajah A , Horpibulsuk S . Stress-dilatancy responses of recovered plastics and demolition waste blends as a construction material. Construction & Building Materials, 2021, 297: 123762

[42] Song X , Zhang Y , Cui X , Liu F , Zhao H . Preparation and characterization of chabazite from construction waste and application as an adsorbent for methylene blue. Adsorption Science and Technology, 2021, 2021: 1–13

[43] Singh R P , Mishra S , Das A P . Synthetic microfibers: pollution toxicity and remediation. Chemosphere, 2020, 257: 127199

[44] Rhodes C J . Solving the plastic problem: from cradle to grave, to reincarnation. Science Progress, 2019, 102(3): 218–248

[45] Hernandez E , Nowack B , Mitrano D M . Polyester textiles as a source of microplastics from households: a mechanistic study to understand microfiber release during washing. Environmental Science & Technology, 2017, 51(12): 7036–7046

[46] Besseling E , Foekema E , Van Franeker J , Leopold M , Kühn S , Bravo Rebolledo E L , Heße E , Mielke L , IJzer J , Kamminga P . Microplastic in a macro filter feeder: humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2015, 95(1): 248–252

[47] Rummel C D , Löder M G , Fricke N F , Lang T , Griebeler E M , Janke M , Gerdts G . Plastic ingestion by pelagic and demersal fish from the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2016, 102(1): 134–141

[48] Goyal H , Seal D , Saxena R . Bio-fuels from thermochemical conversion of renewable resources: a review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2008, 12(2): 504–517

[49] Suriyawong P , Chuetor S , Samae H , Piriyakarnsakul S , Amin M , Furuuchi M , Hata M , Inerb M , Phairuang W . Airborne particulate matter from biomass burning in Thailand: recent issues, challenges, and options. Heliyon, 2023, 9(3): e14261

[50] Andrade Díaz C , Clivot H , Albers A , Zamora-Ledezma E , Hamelin L . The crop residue conundrum: maintaining long-term soil organic carbon stocks while reinforcing the bioeconomy, compatible endeavors. Applied Energy, 2023, 329: 120192

[51] Nguyen H C , Nguyen N T , Su C H , Wang F M , Tran T N , Liao Y T , Liang S H . Biodiesel production from insects: from organic waste to renewable energy. Current Organic Chemistry, 2019, 23(14): 1499–1508

[52] Gontard N , Sonesson U , Birkved M , Majone M , Bolzonella D , Celli A , Angellier-Coussy H , Jang G W , Verniquet A , Broeze J . . A research challenge vision regarding management of agricultural waste in a circular bio-based economy. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2018, 48(6): 614–654

[53] Heaton E A , Clifton-Brown J , Voigt T B , Jones M B , Long S P . Miscanthus for renewable energy generation: European Union experience and projections for Illinois. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 2004, 9(4): 433–451

[54] Rawat I , Ranjith Kumar R R , Mutanda T , Bux F . Biodiesel from microalgae: a critical evaluation from laboratory to large scale production. Applied Energy, 2013, 103: 444–467

[55] EcheverriaM CPellegrinoENutiM. The solid wastes of coffee production and of olive oil extraction: management perspectives in rural areas. IntechOpen Rijeka, Croatia, 2017

[56] Kothari R , Tyagi V V , Pathak A . Waste-to-energy: a way from renewable energy sources to sustainable development. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2010, 14(9): 3164–3170

[57] Xiong X . Recycling food waste into valve-added chemicals over carbon-based catalysts. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 2021,

[58] Noor Z Z , Yusuf R O , Abba A H , Abu Hassan M A , Din M F M . An overview for energy recovery from municipal solid wastes (MSW) in Malaysia scenario. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013, 20: 378–384

[59] BanowetzG MBoatengASteinerJ JGriffithS MSethiVEl-NashaarH. Assessment of straw biomass feedstock resources in the Pacific Northwest. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2008, 32(7: 629–634

[60] RoesijadiGJonesS BSnowden-SwanL JZhuY. Macroalgae as a biomass feedstock: a preliminary analysis (No. PNNL-19944). Pacific Northwest National Lab. (PNNL), Richland, WA (United States). 2010

[61] Vassilev S V , Baxter D , Andersen L K , Vassileva C G . An overview of the chemical composition of biomass. Fuel, 2010, 89(5): 913–933

[62] Vassilev S V , Vassileva C G , Vassilev V S . Advantages and disadvantages of composition and properties of biomass in comparison with coal: an overview. Fuel, 2015, 158: 330–350

[63] Wu M R , Schott D L , Lodewijks G . Physical properties of solid biomass. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2011, 35(5): 2093–2105

[64] Moshood T D , Nawanir G , Mahmud F , Mohamad F , Ahmad M H , AbdulGhani A . Sustainability of biodegradable plastics: new problem or solution to solve the global plastic pollution. Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 2022, 5: 100273

[65] Chen X , Luo Y , Bai X . Upcycling polyamide containing post-consumer Tetra Pak carton packaging to valuable chemicals and recyclable polymer. Waste Management, 2021, 131: 423–432

[66] Topuz F , Oldal D G , Szekely G . Valorization of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic wastes as nanofibrous membranes for oil removal: sustainable solution for plastic waste and oil pollution. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2022, 61(25): 9077–9086

[67] Zabihi O , Patrick R , Ahmadi M , Forrester M , Huxley R , Wei Y , Hadigheh S A , Naebe M . Mechanical upcycling of single-use face mask waste into high-performance composites: an ecofriendly approach with cost-benefit analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 2024, 919: 170469

[68] Saleem J , Moghal Z K B , McKay G . Up-cycling plastic waste into swellable super-sorbents. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2023, 453: 131356

[69] Kots P A , Vance B C , Quinn C M , Wang C , Vlachos D G . A two-stage strategy for upcycling chlorine-contaminated plastic waste. Nature Sustainability, 2023, 6(10): 1258–1267

[70] Obando A G , Robertson M , Umeojiakor C , Smith P , Griffin A , Xiang Y , Qiang Z . Catalyst-free upcycling of crosslinked polyethylene foams for CO₂ capture. Journal of Materials Research, 2024, 39(1): 116–125

[71] Derr K M , Lopez C V , Maladeniya C P , Tennyson A G , Smith R C . Transesterification-vulcanization route to durable composites from post-consumer poly(ethylene terephthalate), terpenoids, and industrial waste sulfur. Journal of Polymer Science, 2023, 61(23): 3075–3086

[72] Gao B , Yao C , Sun X , Yaras A , Mao L . Upcycling discarded polyethylene terephthalate plastics into superior tensile strength and impact resistance materials with a facile one-pot process. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2024, 466: 133662

[73] Hoang C N , Nguyen N T , Doan T Q , Hoang D . Novel efficient method of chemical upcycling of waste poly(ethylene terephthalate) bottles by acidolysis with adipic acid under microwave irradiation. Polymer Degradation & Stability, 2022, 206: 110175

[74] Lopez C V , Smith R C . Composites produced from waste plastic with agricultural and energy sector by-products. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2024, 141(3): e54828

[75] Maladeniya C P , Tennyson A G , Smith R C . Single-stage chemical recycling of plastic waste to yield durable composites via a tandem transesterification-thiocracking process. Journal of Polymer Science, 2023, 61(9): 787–793

[76] Wijeyatunga S K , Derr K M , Maladeniya C P , Sauceda-Oloño P Y , Tennyson A G , Smith R C . Upcycling waste PMMA to durable composites via a transesterification-inverse vulcanization process. Journal of Polymer Science, 2024, 62(3): 554–563

[77] Ng K W J , Lim J S K , Gupta N , Dong B X , Hu C P , Hu J , Hu X M . A facile alternative strategy of upcycling mixed plastic waste into vitrimers. Communications Chemistry, 2023, 6(1): 158

[78] Li Z , Yang Z , Wang S , Luo H , Xue Z , Liu Z , Mu T . Medium entropy metal oxide induced *OH species targeted transfer strategy for efficient polyethylene terephthalate plastic recycling. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2024, 479: 147611

[79] Zhang T , Li X , Wang J , Miao Y , Wang T , Qian X , Zhao Y . Photovoltaic-driven electrocatalytic upcycling poly(ethylene terephthalate) plastic waste coupled with hydrogen generation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2023, 450: 131054

[80] He Y , Luo S , Hu X , Cheng Y , Huang Y , Chen S , Fu M , Jia Y , Liu X . NH₂-MIL-125 (Ti) encapsulated with in situ-formed carbon nanodots with up-conversion effect for improving photocatalytic NO removal and H₂ evolution. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 420: 127643

[81] Han M , Zhu S , Xia C , Yang B . Photocatalytic upcycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) plastic to high-value chemicals. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2022, 316: 121662

[82] Qin J , Dou Y , Zhou J , Zhao D , Orlander T , Andersen H R , Hélix-Nielsen C , Zhang W . Encapsulation of carbon-nanodots into metal-organic frameworks for boosting photocatalytic upcycling of polyvinyl chloride plastic. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2024, 341: 123355

[83] LangerD LOhSStacheE E. Selective poly(vinyl ether) upcycling via photooxidative degradation with visible light. Chemical Science 2024, 15(5): 1840–1845

[84] Qi X , Yan W , Cao Z , Ding M , Yuan Y . Current advances in the biodegradation and bioconversion of polyethylene terephthalate. Microorganisms, 2021, 10(1): 39

[85] Lv S , Li Y , Zhao S , Shao Z . Biodegradation of typical plastics: from microbial diversity to metabolic mechanisms. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2024, 25(1): 593

[86] Jaiswal S , Sharma B , Shukla P . Integrated approaches in microbial degradation of plastics. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 2020, 17: 100567

[87] Pivato A F , Miranda G M , Prichula J , Lima J E , Ligabue R A , Seixas A , Trentin D S . Hydrocarbon-based plastics: progress and perspectives on consumption and biodegradation by insect larvae. Chemosphere, 2022, 293: 133600

[88] Awasthi S K , Kumar M , Kumar V , Sarsaiya S , Anerao P , Ghosh P , Singh L , Liu H , Zhang Z , Awasthi M K . A comprehensive review on recent advancements in biodegradation and sustainable management of biopolymers. Environmental Pollution, 2022, 307: 119600

[89] Jadhav H S , Fulke A B , Dasari L N , Dalai A , Haridevi C . Plastic bio-mitigation by Pseudomonas mendocina ABF786 and simultaneous conversion of its CO₂ byproduct to microalgal biodiesel. Bioresource Technology, 2024, 391: 129952

[90] Valenzuela-Ortega M , Suitor J T , White M F , Hinchcliffe T , Wallace S . Microbial upcycling of waste PET to adipic acid. ACS Central Science, 2023, 9(11): 2057–2063

[91] Kim H T , Kim J K , Cha H G , Kang M J , Lee H S , Khang T U , Yun E J , Lee D H , Song B K , Park S J . . Biological valorization of poly(ethylene terephthalate) monomers for upcycling waste PET. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2019, 7(24): 19396–19406

[92] Werner A Z , Clare R , Mand T D , Pardo I , Ramirez K J , Haugen S J , Bratti F , Dexter G N , Elmore J R , Huenemann J D . . Tandem chemical deconstruction and biological upcycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) to β-ketoadipic acid by Pseudomonas putida KT2440. Metabolic Engineering, 2021, 67: 250–261

[93] Sullivan K P , Werner A Z , Ramirez K J , Ellis L D , Bussard J R , Black B A , Brandner D G , Bratti F , Buss B L , Dong X . . Mixed plastics waste valorization through tandem chemical oxidation and biological funneling. Science, 2022, 378(6616): 207–211

[94] Sadler J C , Wallace S . Microbial synthesis of vanillin from waste poly(ethylene terephthalate). Green Chemistry, 2021, 23(13): 4665–4672

[95] Carniel A , Santos A G , Chinelatto L S , Castro A M , Coelho M A Z . Biotransformation of ethylene glycol to glycolic acid by Yarrowia lipolytica: a route for poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) upcycling. Biotechnology Journal, 2023, 18(6): 2200521

[96] Ballerstedt H , Tiso T , Wierckx N , Wei R , Averous L , Bornscheuer U , O’Connor K , Floehr T , Jupke A , Klankermayer J . . MIXed plastics biodegradation and upcycling using microbial communities: EU Horizon 2020 project MIX-UP started January 2020. Environmental Sciences Europe, 2021, 33(1): 99

[97] Kumari M , Chaudhary G R , Chaudhary S . Transformation of medical plastic waste to valuable carbon dots: a sustainable recycling of medical waste to efficient fluorescent marker. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 2024, 395: 123910

[98] Lee G , Jang H G , Cho S Y , Joh H I , Lee D C , Kim J , Lee S . Polyethylene-derived high-yield carbon material for upcycling plastic wastes as a high-performance composite filler. Composites Part C: Open Access, 2024, 13: 100429

[99] Li Q L , Shan R , Li W J , Wang S X , Yuan H R , Chen Y . Co-production of hydrogen and carbon nanotubes via catalytic pyrolysis of polyethylene over Fe/ZSM-5 catalysts: effect of Fe loading on the catalytic activity. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2024, 55: 1476–1485

[100] Pal S K , Prabhudesai V S , Vinu R . Catalytic upcycling of post-consumer multilayered plastic packaging wastes for the selective production of monoaromatic hydrocarbons. Journal of Environmental Management, 2024, 351: 119630

[101] Alali S A , Aldaihani M K , Alanezi K M . Plant design for the conversion of plastic waste into valuable chemicals (alkyl aromatics). Applied Sciences, 2023, 13(16): 9221

[102] Wang S , Huang Z , Ni Q , Xie Y , Ban L , Wang L , Ni C , Zhang H , Yun T , Dai J . Upcycling waste polyethylene into porous chromium carbide (Cr₂₃C₆) ceramics at low temperature. Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan, 2023, 131(7): 336–339

[103] Zhou X , He P , Peng W , Zhou J , Jiang M , Zhang H , Dong W . A value-added and carbon-reduction approach to upcycle mixed plastic waste into methane and carbon microspheres. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2023, 193: 106988

[104] Zhou X L , He P J , Peng W , Yi S X , Lü F , Shao L M , Zhang H . Upcycling waste polyvinyl chloride: one-pot synthesis of valuable carbon materials and pipeline-quality syngas via pyrolysis in a closed reactor. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2022, 427: 128210

[105] Wyss K M , Beckham J L , Chen W , Luong D X , Hundi P , Raghuraman S , Shahsavari R , Tour J M . Converting plastic waste pyrolysis ash into flash graphene. Carbon, 2021, 174: 430–438

[106] Chang Y , Blanton S J , Andraos R , Nguyen V S , Liotta C L , Schork F J , Sievers C . Kinetic phenomena in mechanochemical depolymerization of poly(styrene). ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2024, 12(1): 178–191

[107] Mohd Abdah M A A , Mohammad Azlan F N , Wong W P , Mustafa M N , Walvekar R , Khalid M . Microwave-assisted upcycling of plastic waste to high-performance carbon anode for lithium-ion batteries. Chemosphere, 2024, 349: 140973

[108] Zhao J , Gao J , Wang D , Chen Y , Zhang L , Ma W , Zhao S . Microwave-intensified catalytic upcycling of plastic waste into hydrogen and carbon nanotubes over self-dispersing bimetallic catalysts. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2024, 483: 149270

[109] Nam Y , Lee S , Jee S M , Bang J , Kim J H , Park J H . High efficiency upcycling of post-consumer acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene via plasma-assisted mechanochemistry. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2024, 480: 147960

[110] Xu X , Li J , Dymerska A , Koh J J , Min J , Liu S , Azadmanjiri J , Mijowska E . MIL-53 (Al) assisted in upcycling plastic bottle waste into nitrogen-doped hierarchical porous carbon for high-performance supercapacitors. Chemosphere, 2023, 340: 139865

[111] Williams J M , Nitzsche M P , Bromberg L , Qu Z , Moment A J , Hatton T A , Park A H A . Hybrid thermo-electrochemical conversion of plastic wastes commingled with marine biomass to value-added products using renewable energy. Energy & Environmental Science, 2023, 16(12): 5805–5821

[112] Shahid M K , Kashif A , Choi Y , Varjani S , Taherzadeh M J , Rout P R . Circular bioeconomy perspective of agro-waste-based biochar. In: Varjani S, Pandey A, Taherzadeh M J, Ngo H H, Tyagi R D, eds. Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals. Circular Bioeconomy: Technologies for Waste Remediation. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2022, 223–243

[113] Chaurasia D , Singh A , Shukla P , Chaturvedi P . Biochar: a sustainable solution for the management of agri-wastes and environment. In: Tsang D C W, Ok Y S, eds. Biochar in Agriculture for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2022, 361–379

[114] Wang W , Kang R , Yin Y , Tu S , Ye L . Two-step pyrolysis biochar derived from agro-waste for antibiotics removal: mechanisms and stability. Chemosphere, 2022, 292: 133454

[115] Cruz G J , Mondal D , Rimaycuna J , Soukup K , Gómez M M , Solis J L , Lang J . Agrowaste derived biochars impregnated with ZnO for removal of arsenic and lead in water. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2020, 8(3): 103800

[116] Shan R , Shi Y , Gu J , Wang Y , Yuan H . Single and competitive adsorption affinity of heavy metals toward peanut shell-derived biochar and its mechanisms in aqueous systems. Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2020, 28(5): 1375–1383

[117] Zhou R , Zhang M , Shao S . Optimization of target biochar for the adsorption of target heavy metal ion. Scientific Reports, 2022, 12(1): 13662

[118] Lachos-Perez D , César Torres-Mayanga P , Abaide E R , Zabot G L , De Castilhos F . Hydrothermal carbonization and liquefaction: differences, progress, challenges, and opportunities. Bioresource Technology, 2022, 343: 126084

[119] Ighalo J O , Rangabhashiyam S , Dulta K , Umeh C T , Iwuozor K O , Aniagor C O , Eshiemogie S O , Iwuchukwu F U , Igwegbe C A . Recent advances in hydrochar application for the adsorptive removal of wastewater pollutants. Chemical Engineering Research & Design, 2022, 184: 419–456

[120] Liu Z , Wang Z , Chen H , Cai T , Liu Z . Hydrochar and pyrochar for sorption of pollutants in wastewater and exhaust gas: a critical review. Environmental Pollution, 2021, 268: 115910

[121] Kızılduman B K , Turhan Y , Doğan M . Mesoporous carbon spheres produced by hydrothermal carbonization from rice husk: optimization, characterization and hydrogen storage. Advanced Powder Technology, 2021, 32(11): 4222–4234

[122] Sultana A I , Saha N , Reza M T . Upcycling simulated food wastes into superactivated hydrochar for remarkable hydrogen storage. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2021, 159: 105322

[123] Wani F A , Rashid R , Jabeen A , Brochier B , Yadav S , Aijaz T , Makroo H , Dar B . Valorisation of food wastes to produce natural pigments using non-thermal novel extraction methods: a review. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 2021, 56(10): 4823–4833

[124] Linares G , Rojas M L . Ultrasound-assisted extraction of natural pigments from food processing by-products: a review. Frontiers in Nutrition, 2022, 9: 891462

[125] Nabi B G , Mukhtar K , Ansar S , Hassan S A , Hafeez M A , Bhat Z F , Mousavi Khaneghah A , Haq A U , Aadil R M . Application of ultrasound technology for the effective management of waste from fruit and vegetable. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 2024, 102: 106744

[126] Kamal M M , Akhtaruzzaman M , Sharmin T , Rahman M , Mondal S C . Optimization of extraction parameters for pectin from guava pomace using response surface methodology. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 2023, 11: 100530

[127] Umaru I J , Umaru H A , Umaru K I . Extraction of essential oils from coconut agro-industrial waste. In: Bhawani S A, Khan A, Ahmad F B, eds. Extraction of Natural Products from Agro-Industrial Wastes: A Green and Sustainable Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2023, 303–318

[128] Sharma M , Usmani Z , Gupta V K , Bhat R . Valorization of fruits and vegetable wastes and by-products to produce natural pigments. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 2021, 41(4): 535–563

[129] Chemat F , Rombaut N , Sicaire A G , Meullemiestre A , Fabiano-Tixier A S , Abert-Vian M . Ultrasound assisted extraction of food and natural products. Mechanisms, techniques, combinations, protocols and applications. A review. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 2017, 34: 540–560

[130] Bhargava N , Mor R S , Kumar K , Sharanagat V S . Advances in application of ultrasound in food processing: a review. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 2021, 70: 105293

[131] Setyaningsih W , Guamán-Balcázar M C , Oktaviani N M D , Palma M . Guamán-Balcázar M d C, Oktaviani N M D, Palma M. Response surface methodology optimization for analytical microwave-assisted extraction of resveratrol from functional marmalade and cookies. Foods, 2023, 12(2): 233

[132] Yang J S , Mu T H , Ma M M . Optimization of ultrasound-microwave assisted acid extraction of pectin from potato pulp by response surface methodology and its characterization. Food Chemistry, 2019, 289: 351–359

[133] Ridlo M , Kumalaningsih S , Pranowo D . Process of microwave assisted extraction (MAE) for rhodomyrtus tomentosa fruit and its bioactive compounds. IOP Conference Series. Earth and Environmental Science, 2020, 475(1): 012038

[134] Streimikyte P , Viskelis P , Viskelis J . Enzymes-assisted extraction of plants for sustainable and functional applications. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2022, 23(4): 2359

[135] Tizón Alba A , Aliaño-González M J , Palma M , Fernández Barbero G , Carrera C . Enhancing efficiency of enzymatic-assisted extraction method for evaluating bioactive compound analysis in mulberry: an optimization approach. Agronomy, 2023, 13(10): 2548

[136] Uwineza P A , Waśkiewicz A . Recent advances in supercritical fluid extraction of natural bioactive compounds from natural plant materials. Molecules, 2020, 25(17): 3847

[137] Vardanega R , Nogueira G C , Nascimento C D , Faria-Machado A F , Meireles M A A . Selective extraction of bioactive compounds from annatto seeds by sequential supercritical CO₂ process. Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 2019, 150: 122–127

[138] Khaw K Y , Parat M O , Shaw P N , Falconer J R . Solvent supercritical fluid technologies to extract bioactive compounds from natural sources: a review. Molecules, 2017, 22(7): 1186

[139] Lin X , Ye W , Mao Y , Li Z , Lan Q , He Q , Kang K , Zhang L , Shui T , Wu Y . . Role of sea salt in modulating biomass-to-biocrude conversion via hydrothermal liquefaction. Desalination, 2024, 576: 117350

[140] Yang J , Yang L . A review on hydrothermal co-liquefaction of biomass. Applied Energy, 2019, 250: 926–945

[141] dos Passos J S , Straka P , Auersvald M , Biller P . Upgrading of hydrothermal liquefaction biocrudes from mono-and co-liquefaction of cow manure and wheat straw through hydrotreating and distillation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2023, 452: 139636

[142] AliZAbdullahMYasinM TAmanatKAhmadKAhmedIQaiseraniM MKhanJ. Organic waste-to-bioplastics: conversion with eco-friendly technologies and approaches for sustainable environment. Environmental Research, 2023, 117949

[143] Bhattarai S , Janaswamy S . Biodegradable films from the lignocellulosic residue of switchgrass. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2024, 201: 107322

[144] Hoque M , Janaswamy S . Biodegradable packaging films from banana peel fiber. Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 2024, 37: 101400

[145] Ahmed S , Janaswamy S , Yadav M P . Biodegradable films from the lignocellulosic fibers of wheat straw biomass and the effect of calcium ions. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2024, 264: 130601

[146] Perotto G , Simonutti R , Ceseracciu L , Mauri M , Besghini D , Athanassiou A . Water-induced plasticization in vegetable-based bioplastic films: a structural and thermo-mechanical study. Polymer, 2020, 200: 122598

[147] Ahmed S , Janaswamy S . Strong and biodegradable films from avocado peel fiber. Industrial Crops and Products, 2023, 201: 116926

[148] Hossain M A , Mushill L , Rahaman M S , Mains S M , Vickers T , Tulaphol S , Dong J , Sathitsuksanoh N . Upcycling agricultural waste to biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates by combined ambient alkaline pretreatment and bacterial fermentation. Industrial Crops and Products, 2022, 185: 114867

[149] Sudhakar M P , Maurya R , Mehariya S , Karthikeyan O P , Dharani G , Arunkumar K , Pereda S V , Hernández-González M C , Buschmann A H , Pugazhendhi A . Feasibility of bioplastic production using micro and macro algae—a review. Environmental Research, 2023, 240: 117465

[150] Liu C , Wang X , Yang H , Liu C , Zhang Z , Chen G . Biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates production from wheat straw by recombinant Halomonas elongata A1. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2021, 187: 675–682

[151] Saeli M , Batra V S , Singh R K , Tobaldi D M , Labrincha J A . The coffee-house: upcycling spent coffee grounds for the production of green geopolymeric architectural energy-saving products. Energy and Building, 2023, 286: 112956–112956

[152] Erdogmus E , Sutcu M , Gencel O , Kazmi S M S , Munir M J , Velasco P M , Ozbakkaloglu T . Enhancing thermal efficiency and durability of sintered clay bricks through incorporation of polymeric waste materials. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2023, 420: 138456–138456

[153] Liu J , Liu J , Cheng L , Jin H , Xing F . Sustainable upcycling of artificial lightweight cold-bonded aggregates (ALCBAs) designed by biochar and concrete slurry waste (CSW) into porous carbons materials for CO₂ sequestration. Construction & Building Materials, 2024, 412: 134736–134736

[154] Yoon S , Lee J . Perspective for waste upcycling-driven zero energy buildings. Energy, 2024, 289: 130029–130029

[155] Tripathi N , Rodriguez Uribe A , Weldekidan H , Misra M , Mohanty A K . Upcycling of waste jute biomass to advanced biocarbon materials: the effect of pyrolysis temperature on their physicochemical and electrical properties. Materials Advances, 2022, 3(24): 9071–9082

[156] George J , Jung D , Bhattacharyya D . Improvement of electrical and mechanical properties of PLA/PBAT composites using coconut shell biochar for antistatic applications. Applied Sciences, 2023, 13(2): 902

[157] Umerah C O , Kodali D , Head S , Jeelani S , Rangari V K . Synthesis of carbon from waste coconutshell and their application as filler in bioplast polymer filaments for 3D printing. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2020, 202: 108428–108428

[158] Mohammed Z , Jeelani S , Rangari V K . Effect of low-temperature plasma treatment on starch-based biochar and its reinforcement for three-dimensional printed polypropylene biocomposites. ACS Omega, 2022, 7(44): 39636–39647

[159] Alhelal A , Mohammed Z , Jeelani S , Rangari V K . 3D printing of spent coffee ground derived biochar reinforced epoxy composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 2021, 55(25): 3651–3660

[160] Chua J Y , Pen K M , Poi J V , Ooi K M , Yee K F . Upcycling of biomass waste from durian industry for green and sustainable applications: an analysis review in the Malaysia context. Energy Nexus, 2023, 10: 100203–100203

[161] Tan Y L , Abdullah A Z , Hameed B H . Catalytic fast pyrolysis of durian rind using silica-alumina catalyst: effects of pyrolysis parameters. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 264: 198–205

[162] Tan Y L , Hameed B H , Abdullah A Z . Deoxygenation of pyrolysis vapour derived from durian shell using catalysts prepared from industrial wastes rich in Ca, Fe, Si and Al. Science of the Total Environment, 2020, 703: 134902–134902

[163] Yao L S , Zhang F S , Song Z L , Zhao X Q , Wang W L , Mao Y P , Sun J . ReaxFF MD simulation of microwave catalytic pyrolysis of polypropylene over Fe catalyst for hydrogen. Fuel, 2023, 340: 127550

[164] Wang C , Lei H , Kong X , Zou R , Qian M , Zhao Y , Mateo W . Catalytic upcycling of waste plastics over nanocellulose derived biochar catalyst for the coupling harvest of hydrogen and liquid fuels. Science of the Total Environment, 2021, 779: 146463

[165] Arregi A , Amutio M , Lopez G , Artetxe M , Alvarez J , Bilbao J , Olazar M . Hydrogen-rich gas production by continuous pyrolysis and in-line catalytic reforming of pine wood waste and HDPE mixtures. Energy Conversion and Management, 2017, 136: 192–201

[166] Wei J , Liu J , Zeng W , Dong Z , Song J , Liu S , Liu G . Catalytic hydroconversion processes for upcycling plastic waste to fuels and chemicals. Catalysis Science & Technology, 2023, 13(5): 1258–1280

[167] Hu K , Yang Y , Wang Y , Duan X , Wang S . Catalytic carbon and hydrogen cycles in plastics chemistry. Chem Catalysis, 2022, 2(4): 724–761

[168] Liu Y , Duan H . Recent progress in upcycling of plastic wastes into value-added chemicals via photo-, electro- and photoelectro-catalytic strategies. Fundamental Research, 2024,

[169] Zhang G , Zhang Z , Zeng R . Photoinduced FeCl₃-catalyzed alkyl aromatics oxidation toward degradation of polystyrene at room temperature. Chinese Journal of Chemistry, 2021, 39(12): 3225–3230

[170] Wang M , Wen J , Huang Y , Hu P . Selective degradation of styrene-related plastics catalyzed by iron under visible light. ChemSusChem, 2021, 14(22): 5049–5056

[171] Meng J , Zhou Y , Li D , Jiang X . Degradation of plastic wastes to commercial chemicals and monomers under visible light. Science Bulletin, 2023, 68(14): 1522–1530

[172] Lin C Y , Huang S C , Lin Y G , Hsu L C , Yi C T . Electrosynthesized Ni-P nanospheres with high activity and selectivity towards photoelectrochemical plastics reforming. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2021, 296: 120351–120351

[173] Huang K T , Chen C P , Jiang B H , Jeng R J , Chen W C . Green poly-lysine as electron-extraction modified layer with over 15% power conversion efficiency and its application in bio-based flexible organic solar cells. Organic Electronics, 2020, 87: 105924–105924

[174] Lam J Y , Shih C C , Lee W Y , Chueh C C , Jang G W , Huang C J , Tung S H , Chen W C . Bio-based transparent conductive film consisting of polyethylene furanoate and silver nanowires for flexible optoelectronic devices. Macromolecular Rapid Communications, 2018, 39(13): 1800271

[175] Eerhart A J J E , Faaij A P C , Patel M K . Replacing fossil based PET with biobased PEF: process analysis, energy and GHG balance. Energy & Environmental Science, 2012, 5(4): 6407–6422

[176] Burgess S K , Karvan O , Johnson J R , Kriegel R M , Koros W J . Oxygen sorption and transport in amorphous poly(ethylene furanoate). Polymer, 2014, 55(18): 4748–4756

[177] Pellis A , Haernvall K , Pichler C M , Ghazaryan G , Breinbauer R , Guebitz G M . Enzymatic hydrolysis of poly(ethylene furanoate). Journal of Biotechnology, 2016, 235: 47–53

[178] Rosenboom J G , Hohl D K , Fleckenstein P , Storti G , Morbidelli M . Bottle-grade polyethylene furanoate from ring-opening polymerisation of cyclic oligomers. Nature Communications, 2018, 9(1): 2701

[179] Huang K T , Shih C C , Jiang B H , Jeng R J , Chen C P , Chen W C . The green poly-lysine enantiomers as electron-extraction layers for high performance organic photovoltaics. Journal of Materials Chemistry C: Materials for Optical and Electronic Devices, 2019, 7(40): 12572–12579

[180] Arnold L J Jr , Dagan A , Gutheil J , Kaplan N O . Antineoplastic activity of poly(L-lysine) with some ascites tumor cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 1979, 76(7): 3246–3250

[181] Shen W C , Ryser H J P . Poly(L-lysine) and poly(D-lysine) conjugates of methotrexate: different inhibitory effect on drug resistant cells. Molecular Pharmacology, 1979, 16(2): 614

[182] Deng X , Nie R , Li A , Wei H , Zheng S , Huang W , Mo Y , Su Y , Wang Q , Li Y . . Ultra-low work function transparent electrodes achieved by naturally occurring biomaterials for organic optoelectronic devices. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2014, 1(7): 1400215–1400215

[183] Huang X , Zhou B , Sun G , Yang X , Wang Y , Zhang X . Upcycling of plastic wastes and biomass to mechanically robust yet recyclable energy-harvesting materials. Nano Energy, 2023, 116: 108843–108843

[184] Diao J , Hu Y , Tian Y , Carr R , Moon T S . Upcycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) to produce high-value bio-products. Cell Reports, 2023, 42(1): 111908

[185] Zhang Y , Tian F , Liu C , Liu X , He Y , Wu Z . Upcycling of waste PET into high-performance and multifunctional materials. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2024, 434: 140048–140048

[186] Wong T S , Kang S H , Tang S K Y , Smythe E J , Hatton B D , Grinthal A , Aizenberg J . Bioinspired self-repairing slippery surfaces with pressure-stable omniphobicity. Nature, 2011, 477(7365): 443–447

[187] Franden M A , Jayakody L N , Li W J , Wagner N J , Cleveland N S , Michener W E , Hauer B , Blank L M , Wierckx N , Klebensberger J . . Engineering Pseudomonas putida KT2440 for efficient ethylene glycol utilization. Metabolic Engineering, 2018, 48: 197–207

[188] Pardo I , Jha R K , Bermel R E , Bratti F , Gaddis M , McIntyre E , Michener W , Neidle E L , Dale T , Beckham G T . . Gene amplification, laboratory evolution, and biosensor screening reveal MucK as a terephthalic acid transporter in Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1. Metabolic Engineering, 2020, 62: 260–274

[189] Wang H , Man S , Wang H , Presser V , Yan Q , Zhang Y . Grave-to-cradle upcycling of harmful algal biomass into atomically dispersed iron catalyst for efficient ammonia electrosynthesis from nitrate. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2023, 332: 122778–122778

[190] Celik G , Kennedy R M , Hackler R A , Ferrandon M , Tennakoon A , Patnaik S , LaPointe A M , Ammal S C , Heyden A , Perras F A . . Upcycling single-use polyethylene into high-quality liquid products. ACS Central Science, 2019, 5(11): 1795–1803

[191] Seah C C , Tan C H , Arifin N A , Hafriz R S R M , Salmiaton A , Nomanbhay S , Shamsuddin A H . Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic: circularity of wastes and comprehensive review of synergistic mechanism. Results in Engineering, 2023, 17: 100989

[192] Zhao X , Korey M , Li K , Copenhaver K , Tekinalp H , Celik S , Kalaitzidou K , Ruan R , Ragauskas A J , Ozcan S . Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2022, 428: 131928

[193] OECD. Global Plastic Outlook Policy Scenarios to 2060. Organization For Economic, 2022 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development?

[194] Shan X , Neo V Z Y , Yang E H . Mobile app-aided design thinking approach to promote upcycling in Singapore. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 317: 128502

[195] Zheng Q , Li Z , Watanabe M . Production of solid fuels by hydrothermal treatment of wastes of biomass, plastic, and biomass/plastic mixtures: a review. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, 2022, 7(4): 221–244

[196] Sung K . A review on upcycling: current body of literature, knowledge gaps and a way forward. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability. Venice: Italy, 2015, 13–14

[197] Weldekidan H , Mohanty A K , Misra M . Upcycling of plastic wastes and biomass for sustainable graphitic carbon production: a critical review. ACS Environmental Au, 2022, 2(6): 510–522

[198] Adelodun A A . Plastic recovery and utilization: from ocean pollution to green economy. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2021, 9: 683403

[199] Wang K , Tester J W . Sustainable management of unavoidable biomass wastes. Green Energy and Resources, 2023, 1(1): 100005

[200] Balu R , Dutta N K , Roy Choudhury N . Plastic waste upcycling: a sustainable solution for waste management, product development, and circular economy. Polymers, 2022, 14(22): 4788

[201] Ali W , Ali H , Souissi S , Zinck P . Are bioplastics an ecofriendly alternative to fossil fuel plastics. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2023, 21(4): 1991–2002

[202] Kabeyi M J B , Olanrewaju O A . Review and design overview of plastic waste-to-pyrolysis oil conversion with implications on the energy transition. Journal of Energy, 2023, 2023: 1821129

[203] Qian Q , Ren J . From plastic waste to potential wealth: upcycling technologies, process synthesis, assessment and optimization. Science of the Total Environment, 2024, 907: 167897

[204] Mallick K , Sahu A , Dubey N K , Das A P . Harvesting marine plastic pollutants-derived renewable energy: a comprehensive review on applied energy and sustainable approach. Journal of Environmental Management, 2023, 348: 119371

[205] Gabbar H A , Aboughaly M . Conceptual process design, energy and economic analysis of solid waste to hydrocarbon fuels via thermochemical processes. Processes, 2021, 9(12): 2149

[206] Yang M , Chen L , Wang J , Msigwa G , Osman A I , Fawzy S , Rooney D W , Yap P S . Circular economy strategies for combating climate change and other environmental issues. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2023, 21(1): 55–80

[207] Oladapo B I , Bowoto O K , Adebiyi V A , Ikumapayi O M . Net zero on 3D printing filament recycling: a sustainable analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 2023, 894: 165046

[208] Chopra H , Goel P , Shimrah T , Gandhi P B , Ghuriani V , Baweja P . Carbon footprint as climate change disclosure: opportunities for performance improvement. Journal of Thematic Analysis, 2020, 1(1): 161–166

[209] Yuan X , Kumar N M , Brigljević B , Li S , Deng S , Byun M , Lee B , Lin C S K , Tsang D C W , Lee K B . . Sustainability-inspired upcycling of waste polyethylene terephthalate plastic into porous carbon for CO₂ capture. Green Chemistry, 2022, 24(4): 1494–1504

[210] Ford H V , Jones N H , Davies A J , Godley B J , Jambeck J R , Napper I E , Suckling C C , Williams G J , Woodall L C , Koldewey H J . The fundamental links between climate change and marine plastic pollution. Science of the Total Environment, 2022, 806: 150392

[211] Halawy S A , Osman A I , Nasr M , Rooney D W . Mg-O-F nanocomposite catalysts defend against global warming via the efficient, dynamic, and rapid capture of CO₂ at different temperatures under ambient pressure. ACS Omega, 2022, 7(43): 38856–38868

[212] Chen L , Msigwa G , Yang M , Osman A I , Fawzy S , Rooney D W , Yap P S . Strategies to achieve a carbon neutral society: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2022, 20(4): 2277–2310

[213] Kwon Y , Choi K , Jang Y C . Greenhouse gas emissions from incineration of municipal solid waste in Seoul, South Korea. Energies, 2023, 16(12): 4791

[214] Singh J , Sung K , Cooper T , West K , Mont O . Challenges and opportunities for scaling up upcycling businesses—the case of textile and wood upcycling businesses in the UK. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2019, 150: 104439

[215] Zhang F , Wang F , Wei X , Yang Y , Xu S , Deng D , Wang Y Z . From trash to treasure: chemical recycling and upcycling of commodity plastic waste to fuels, high-valued chemicals and advanced materials. Journal of Energy Chemistry, 2022, 69: 369–388

[216] Tinz J , de Ancos T , Rohn H . Carbon footprint of mechanical recycling of post-industrial plastic waste: study of ABS, PA66GF30, PC and POM regrinds. Waste, 2023, 1(1): 127–139

[217] Dogu O , Pelucchi M , Van de Vijver R , Van Steenberge P H M , D’Hooge D R , Cuoci A , Mehl M , Frassoldati A , Faravelli T , Van Geem K M . The chemistry of chemical recycling of solid plastic waste via pyrolysis and gasification: state-of-the-art, challenges, and future directions. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2021, 84: 100901

[218] Wang J , Li S , Deng S , Cheng Z , Hu X , Wan Mahari W A , Lam S S , Yuan X . Upcycling medical plastic waste into activated carbons toward environmental safety and sustainability. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 2023, 33: 100470

[219] Subbarao P M V , D’ Silva T C , Adlak K , Kumar S , Chandra R , Vijay V K . Anaerobic digestion as a sustainable technology for efficiently utilizing biomass in the context of carbon neutrality and circular economy. Environmental Research, 2023, 234: 116286

[220] Uddin M M , Wright M M . Anaerobic digestion fundamentals, challenges, and technological advances. Physical Sciences Reviews, 2023, 8(9): 2819–2837

[221] Horodytska O , Kiritsis D , Fullana A . Upcycling of printed plastic films: LCA analysis and effects on the circular economy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 268: 122138

[222] Sicoli G , Bronzetti G , Baldini M . The importance of sustainability in the fashion sector: ADIDAS case study. International Business Research, 2019, 12(6): 41–51

[223] Watt E , Picard M , Maldonado B , Abdelwahab M A , Mielewski D F , Drzal L T , Misra M , Mohanty A K . Ocean plastics: environmental implications and potential routes for mitigation—a perspective. RSC Advances, 2021, 11(35): 21447–21462

[224] Al Rashid A , Koç M . Additive manufacturing for sustainability and circular economy: needs, challenges, and opportunities for 3D printing of recycled polymeric waste. Materials Today Sustainability, 2023, 24: 100529

[225] Payne J , McKeown P , Jones M D . A circular economy approach to plastic waste. Polymer Degradation & Stability, 2019, 165: 170–181

[226] Worch J C , Dove A P . 100th anniversary of macromolecular science viewpoint: toward catalytic chemical recycling of waste (and future) plastics. ACS Macro Letters, 2020, 9(11): 1494–1506

[227] Rahimi A , García J M . Chemical recycling of waste plastics for new materials production. Nature Reviews Chemistry, 2017, 1(6): 0046

[228] Payne J , Jones M D . The chemical recycling of polyesters for a circular plastics economy: challenges and emerging opportunities. ChemSusChem, 2021, 14(19): 4041–4070

[229] Lee S , Lee Y R , Kim S J , Lee J S , Min K . Recent advances and challenges in the biotechnological upcycling of plastic wastes for constructing a circular bioeconomy. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2023, 454: 140470

[230] Arena U , Ardolino F . Technical and environmental performances of alternative treatments for challenging plastics waste. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2022, 183: 106379

[231] Auer M , Schmidt J , Diemert J , Gerhardt G , Renz M , Galler V , Woidasky J . Quality aspects in the compounding of plastic recyclate. Recycling, 2023, 8(1): 18

[232] FeilAPretzT. Chapter 11—Mechanical recycling of packaging waste. In: Trevor M L, ed. Plastic Waste and Recycling. Massachusetts: Academic Press, 2020: 283–319

[233] Hahladakis J N , Iacovidou E . Closing the loop on plastic packaging materials: what is quality and how does it affect their circularity. Science of the Total Environment, 2018, 630: 1394–1400

[234] Kroell N , Chen X , Greiff K , Feil A . Optical sensors and machine learning algorithms in sensor-based material flow characterization for mechanical recycling processes: a systematic literature review. Waste Management, 2022, 149: 259–290

[235] Kroell N , Chen X , Küppers B , Schlögl S , Feil A , Greiff K . Near-infrared-based quality control of plastic pre-concentrates in lightweight-packaging waste sorting plants. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2024, 201: 107256

[236] Zhang J , Qiu Y , Chen J , Guo J , Chen J , Chen S . Three dimensional object segmentation based on spatial adaptive projection for solid waste. Neurocomputing, 2019, 328: 122–134

[237] Lu W , Chen J , Xue F . Using computer vision to recognize composition of construction waste mixtures: a semantic segmentation approach. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2022, 178: 106022

[238] Signoret C , Caro-Bretelle A S , Lopez-Cuesta J M , Ienny P , Perrin D . Alterations of plastics spectra in MIR and the potential impacts on identification towards recycling. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2020, 161: 104980

[239] Zhao Y , Li J . Sensor-based technologies in effective solid waste sorting: successful applications, sensor combination, and future directions. Environmental Science & Technology, 2022, 56(24): 17531–17544

[240] Borrelle S B , Ringma J , Law K L , Monnahan C C , Lebreton L , McGivern A , Murphy E , Jambeck J , Leonard G H , Hilleary M A . . Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic pollution. Science, 2020, 369(6510): 1515–1518

[241] Dai Y C , Gordon M P R , Ye J Y , Xu D Y , Lin Z Y , Robinson N K L , Woodard R , Harder M K . Why doorstepping can increase household waste recycling. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2015, 102: 9–19

[242] Chen D M C , Bodirsky B L , Krueger T , Mishra A , Popp A . The world’s growing municipal solid waste: trends and impacts. Environmental Research Letters, 2020, 15(7): 074021

[243] Thapa K , Vermeulen W J V , Deutz P , Olayide O E . Transboundary movement of waste review: from binary towards a contextual framing. Waste Management & Research, 2023, 41(1): 52–67

[244] Jiang X , Wang T , Jiang M , Xu M , Yu Y , Guo B , Chen D , Hu S , Jiang J , Zhang Y . . Assessment of plastic stocks and flows in China: 1978–2017. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2020, 161: 104969

[245] Wang W , Themelis N J , Sun K , Bourtsalas A C , Huang Q , Zhang Y , Wu Z . Current influence of China’s ban on plastic waste imports. Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy, 2019, 1(1): 67–78

[246] ChauM QHoangA TTruongT TNguyenX P. Endless story about the alarming reality of plastic waste in Vietnam. Energy Sources Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, Aug 2, 2020

[247] Cotta B . What goes around, comes around? Access and allocation problems in Global North-South waste trade. International Environmental Agreement: Politics, Law and Economics, 2020, 20(2): 255–269

[248] Abu-Thabit N Y , Pérez-Rivero C , Uwaezuoke O J , Ngwuluka N C . From waste to wealth: upcycling of plastic and lignocellulosic wastes to PHAs. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 2022, 97(12): 3217–3240

[249] Thiounn T , Smith R C . Advances and approaches for chemical recycling of plastic waste. Journal of Polymer Science, 2020, 58(10): 1347–1364

[250] Singh A , Rorrer N , Nicholson S , Erickson E , DesVeaux J , Avelino A , Lamers P , Bhatt A , Zhang Y , Avery G . . Techno-economic, life-cycle, and socioeconomic impact analysis of enzymatic recycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate). Joule, 2021, 5(9): 2479–2503

[251] Zhu B , Wang D , Wei N . Enzyme discovery and engineering for sustainable plastic recycling. Trends in Biotechnology, 2022, 40(1): 22–37

[252] Lomwongsopon P , Varrone C . Critical review on the progress of plastic bioupcycling technology as a potential solution for sustainable plastic waste management. Polymers, 2022, 14(22): 4996

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the Bryden Centre project (Project ID VA5048). The Bryden Centre project is supported by the European Union’s INTERREG VA Programme, managed by the Special EU Programmes Body (SEUPB). Dr. Mohamed Farghali wishes to acknowledge the support from Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellows grant number JP22KF0257. Dr. Ahmed I. Osman and Dr. Mahmoud Nasr wish to dedicate this work to the spirit of the distinguished Egyptian Professor Dr. Samih A. Halawy, who passed away on the 2nd of September 2022.

Open Access

This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 The Author(s) 2024. This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep.com.cn