Synthesis of porous carbon from orange peel waste for effective volatile organic compounds adsorption: role of typical components

Abstract

Volatile organic compounds have posed a serious threat to the environment and human health, which require urgent and effective removal. In recent years, the preparation of porous carbon from biomass waste for volatile organic compounds adsorption has attracted increasing attention as a very cost-effective and promising technology. In this study, porous carbon was synthesized from orange peel by urea-assisted hydrothermal carbonization and KOH activation. The role of typical components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) in pore development and volatile organic compounds adsorption was investigated. Among the three components, hemicellulose was the major contributor to high porosity and abundant micropores in porous carbon. Higher hemicellulose content led to more abundant –COOR, amine-N, and pyrrolic/pyridonic-N in the derived hydrochar, which were favorable for porosity formation during activation. In this case, the toluene adsorption capacity of the porous carbon improved from 382.8 to 485.3 mg·g^–1. Unlike hemicellulose, cellulose reduced the >C=O, amine-N, and pyrrolic/pyridonic-N content of the hydrochar, which caused porosity deterioration and worse toluene adsorption performance. Lignin bestowed the hydrochar with slightly increased –COOR, pyrrolic/pyridonic-N, and graphitic-N, and reduced >C=O, resulting in comparatively poor porosity and more abundant micropores. In general, the obtained porous carbon possessed abundant micropores and high specific surface area, with the highest up to 2882 m²·g^–1. This study can provide guidance for selecting suitable biomass waste to synthesize porous carbon with better porosity for efficient volatile organic compounds adsorption.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

biomass waste / porous carbon / feedstock composition / urea-assisted hydrothermal carbonization / toluene adsorption / N-doped hydrochar

References

[1] Gałęzowska G, Chraniuk M, Wolska L. In vitro assays as a tool for determination of VOCs toxic effect on respiratory system: a critical review. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2016, 77: 14–22

[2] Zheng C, Shen J, Zhang Y, Huang W, Zhu X, Wu X, Chen L, Gao X, Cen K. Quantitative assessment of industrial VOC emissions in China: historical trend, spatial distribution, uncertainties, and projection. Atmospheric Environment, 2017, 150: 116–125

[3] Colman Lerner J E, Sanchez E Y, Sambeth J E, Porta A A. Characterization and health risk assessment of VOCs in occupational environments in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Atmospheric Environment, 2012, 55: 440–447

[4] Zhang Z, Jiang Z, Shangguan W. Low-temperature catalysis for VOCs removal in technology and application: a state-of-the-art review. Catalysis Today, 2016, 264: 270–278

[5] Yang C, Miao G, Pi Y, Xia Q, Wu J, Li Z, Xiao J. Abatement of various types of VOCs by adsorption/catalytic oxidation: a review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 370: 1128–1153

[6] Li X, Zhang L, Yang Z, Wang P, Yan Y, Ran J. Adsorption materials for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and the key factors for VOCs adsorption process: a review. Separation and Purification Technology, 2020, 235: 116213

[7] Twumasi E, Forslund M, Norberg P, Sjöström C. Carbon-silica composites prepared by the precipitation method. Effect of the synthesis parameters on textural characteristics and toluene dynamic adsorption. Journal of Porous Materials, 2012, 19(3): 333–343

[8] Son H K, Sivakumar S, Rood M J, Kim B J. Electrothermal adsorption and desorption of volatile organic compounds on activated carbon fiber cloth. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2016, 301: 27–34

[9] Jothi Ramalingam R, Sivachidambaram M, Vijaya J J, Al-Lohedan H A, Muthumareeswaran M R. Synthesis of porous activated carbon powder formation from fruit peel and cow dung waste for modified electrode fabrication and application. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2020, 142: 105800

[10] Jain A, Balasubramanian R, Srinivasan M P. Tuning hydrochar properties for enhanced mesopore development in activated carbon by hydrothermal carbonization. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 2015, 203: 178–185

[11] Singh G, Lakhi K S, Sil S, Bhosale S V, Kim I, Albahily K, Vinu A. Biomass derived porous carbon for CO₂ capture. Carbon, 2019, 148: 164–186

[12] Yin J, Zhang W, Alhebshi N A, Salah N, Alshareef H N. Synthesis strategies of porous carbon for supercapacitor applications. Small Methods, 2020, 4(3): 1900853

[13] Song M, Zhou Y, Ren X, Wan J, Du Y, Wu G, Ma F. Biowaste-based porous carbon for supercapacitor: the influence of preparation processes on structure and performance. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2019, 535: 276–286

[14] Zhao P, Shen Y, Ge S, Chen Z, Yoshikawa K. Clean solid biofuel production from high moisture content waste biomass employing hydrothermal treatment. Applied Energy, 2014, 131: 345–367

[15] Shen Y, Zhang N. A facile synthesis of nitrogen-doped porous carbons from lignocellulose and protein wastes for VOCs sorption. Environmental Research, 2020, 189: 109956

[16] Zhang X, Gao B, Fang J, Zou W, Dong L, Cao C, Zhang J, Li Y, Wang H. Chemically activated hydrochar as an effective adsorbent for volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Chemosphere, 2019, 218: 680–686

[17] Başakçılardan Kabakcı S, Baran S S. Hydrothermal carbonization of various lignocellulosics: fuel characteristics of hydrochars and surface characteristics of activated hydrochars. Waste Management, 2019, 100: 259–268

[18] Falco C, Baccile N, Titirici M. Morphological and structural differences between glucose, cellulose and lignocellulosic biomass derived hydrothermal carbons. Green Chemistry, 2011, 13(11): 3273

[19] Jain A, Balasubramanian R, Srinivasan M P. Hydrothermal conversion of biomass waste to activated carbon with high porosity: a review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2016, 283: 789–805

[20] Basso D, Patuzzi F, Castello D, Baratieri M, Rada E C, Weiss-Hortala E, Fiori L. Agro-industrial waste to solid biofuel through hydrothermal carbonization. Waste Management, 2016, 47: 114–121

[21] Libra J A, Ro K S, Kammann C, Funke A, Berge N D, Neubauer Y, Titirici M, Fühner C, Bens O, Kern J, Emmerich K-H. Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass residuals: a comparative review of the chemistry, processes and applications of wet and dry pyrolysis. Biofuels, 2011, 2(1): 71–106

[22] Ogihara Y, Smith R L, Inomata H, Arai K. Direct observation of cellulose dissolution in subcritical and supercritical water over a wide range of water densities (550–1000 kg·m^–3). Cellulose, 2005, 12(6): 595–606

[23] Sevilla M, Fuertes A B. The production of carbon materials by hydrothermal carbonization of cellulose. Carbon, 2009, 47(9): 2281–2289

[24] Kang S, Li X, Fan J, Chang J. Characterization of hydrochars produced by hydrothermal carbonization of lignin, cellulose, D-xylose, and wood meal. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2012, 51(26): 9023–9031

[25] Fang Z, Sato T, Smith R L, Inomata H, Arai K, Kozinski J A. Reaction chemistry and phase behavior of lignin in high-temperature and supercritical water. Bioresource Technology, 2008, 99(9): 3424–3430

[26] Dinjus E, Kruse A, Tröger N. Hydrothermal carbonization: 1. Influence of lignin in lignocelluloses. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 2011, 83(10): 1734–1741

[27] Xiao K, Liu H, Li Y, Yi L, Zhang X, Hu H, Yao H. Correlations between hydrochar properties and chemical constitution of orange peel waste during hydrothermal carbonization. Bioresource Technology, 2018, 265: 432–436

[28] Jain A, Balasubramanian R, Srinivasan M P. Production of high surface area mesoporous activated carbons from waste biomass using hydrogen peroxide-mediated hydrothermal treatment for adsorption applications. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2015, 273: 622–629

[29] Islam M A, Ahmed M J, Khanday W A, Asif M, Hameed B H. Mesoporous activated coconut shell-derived hydrochar prepared via hydrothermal carbonization-NaOH activation for methylene blue adsorption. Journal of Environmental Management, 2017, 203: 237–244

[30] Zhu M, Zhou K, Sun X, Zhao Z, Tong Z, Zhao Z. Hydrophobic N-doped porous biocarbon from dopamine for high selective adsorption of p-xylene under humid conditions. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2017, 317: 660–672

[31] Yang F, Li W, Zhang L, Tu W, Wang X, Li L, Yu C, Gao Q, Yuan A, Pan J. Drastically boosting volatile acetone capture enabled by N-doping activated carbon: an interesting deep surface digging effect. Separation and Purification Technology, 2021, 276: 119280

[32] Xiao K, Liu H, Li Y, Yang G, Wang Y, Yao H. Excellent performance of porous carbon from urea-assisted hydrochar of orange peel for toluene and iodine adsorption. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 382: 122997

[33] Romero-Anaya A J, Lillo-Ródenas M A, Linares-Solano A. Activation of a spherical carbon for toluene adsorption at low concentration. Carbon, 2014, 77: 616–626

[34] Zhang X, Gao B, Creamer A E, Cao C, Li Y. Adsorption of VOCs onto engineered carbon materials: a review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2017, 338: 102–123

[35] Chen G, Yu H, Lin F, Zhang Z, Yan B, Song Y. Utilization of edible fungi residues towards synthesis of high-performance porous carbon for effective sorption of Cl-VOCs. Science of the Total Environment, 2020, 727: 138475

[36] Yang Y, Lin B, Sun C, Tang M, Lu S, Huang Q, Yan J. Facile synthesis of tailored mesopore-enriched hierarchical porous carbon from food waste for rapid removal of aromatic VOCs. Science of the Total Environment, 2021, 773: 145453

[37] Lillo-Ródenas M A, Cazorla-Amorós D, Linares-Solano A. Behaviour of activated carbons with different pore size distributions and surface oxygen groups for benzene and toluene adsorption at low concentrations. Carbon, 2005, 43(8): 1758–1767

[38] Vasquez-Elizondo L J, Rendón-Ángeles J C, Matamoros-Veloza Z, López-Cuevas J, Yanagisawa K. Urea decomposition enhancing the hydrothermal synthesis of lithium iron phosphate powders: effect of the lithium precursor. Advanced Powder Technology, 2017, 28(6): 1593–1602

[39] Chen C, Boldor D, Aita G, Walker M. Ethanol production from sorghum by a microwave-assisted dilute ammonia pretreatment. Bioresource Technology, 2012, 110: 190–197

[40] Wang T, Zhai Y, Zhu Y, Li C, Zeng G. A review of the hydrothermal carbonization of biomass waste for hydrochar formation: process conditions, fundamentals, and physicochemical properties. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018, 90: 223–247

[41] Si W, Zhou J, Zhang S, Li S, Xing W, Zhuo S. Tunable N-doped or dual N, S-doped activated hydrothermal carbons derived from human hair and glucose for supercapacitor applications. Electrochimica Acta, 2013, 107: 397–405

[42] Chen N, Huang Y, Hou X, Ai Z, Zhang L. Photochemistry of hydrochar: reactive oxygen species generation and sulfadimidine degradation. Environmental Science & Technology, 2017, 51(19): 11278–11287

[43] Wang D, Su D. Heterogeneous nanocarbon materials for oxygen reduction reaction. Energy & Environmental Science, 2014, 7(2): 576–591

[44] Rao L, Ma R, Liu S, Wang L, Wu Z, Yang J, Hu X. Nitrogen enriched porous carbons from d-glucose with excellent CO₂ capture performance. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 362: 794–801

[45] Li Y, Zou B, Hu C, Cao M. Nitrogen-doped porous carbon nanofiber webs for efficient CO₂ capture and conversion. Carbon, 2016, 99: 79–89

[46] Wu Q, Li W, Liu S, Jin C. Hydrothermal synthesis of N-doped spherical carbon from carboxymethylcellulose for CO₂ capture. Applied Surface Science, 2016, 369: 101–107

[47] Seredych M, Hulicova-Jurcakova D, Lu G Q, Bandosz T J. Surface functional groups of carbons and the effects of their chemical character, density and accessibility to ions on electrochemical performance. Carbon, 2008, 46(11): 1475–1488

[48] Latham K G, Simone M I, Dose W M, Allen J A, Donne S W. Synchrotron based NEXAFS study on nitrogen doped hydrothermal carbon: insights into surface functionalities and formation mechanisms. Carbon, 2017, 114: 566–578

[49] Baccile N, Laurent G, Coelho C, Babonneau F, Zhao L, Titirici M. Structural insights on nitrogen-containing hydrothermal carbon using solid-state magic angle spinning ¹³C and ¹⁵N nuclear magnetic resonance. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2011, 115(18): 8976–8982

[50] Billaud C, Maraschin C, Chow Y, Chériot S, Peyrat-Maillard M, Nicolas J. Maillard reaction products as “natural antibrowning” agents in fruit and vegetable technology. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 2005, 49(7): 656–662

[51] Dominguez J M, Cao N, Gong C S, Tsao G T. Dilute acid hemicellulose hydrolysates from corn cobs for xylitol production by yeast. Bioresource Technology, 1997, 61(1): 85–90

[52] Kirk T K, Obst J R. Lignin determination. Methods in Enzymology, 1988, 161: 87–101

[53] Thygesen A, Oddershede J, Lilholt H, Thomsen A B, Ståhl K. On the determination of crystallinity and cellulose content in plant fibres. Cellulose, 2005, 12(6): 563–576

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Shenzhen Science and Technology Program (Grant No. JSGG20210802154804013). The authors also thank the Analytical and Testing Center of Huazhong University of Science and Technology for testing of the samples.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2023 Higher Education Press