Hierarchical porous carbon derived from one-step self-activation of zinc gluconate for symmetric supercapacitors with high energy density

Abstract

Porous carbons with high specific area surfaces are promising electrode materials for supercapacitors. However, their production usually involves complex, time-consuming, and corrosive processes. Hence, a straightforward and effective strategy is presented for producing highly porous carbons via a self-activation procedure utilizing zinc gluconate as the precursor. The volatile nature of zinc at high temperatures gives the carbons a large specific surface area and an abundance of mesopores, which avoids the use of additional activators and templates. Consequently, the obtained porous carbon electrode delivers a satisfactory specific capacitance and outstanding cycling durability of 90.9% after 50000 cycles at 10 A∙g^–1. The symmetric supercapacitors assembled by the optimal electrodes exhibit an acceptable rate capability and a distinguished cycling stability in both aqueous and ionic liquid electrolytes. Accordingly, capacitance retention rates of 77.8% and 85.7% are achieved after 50000 cycles in aqueous alkaline electrolyte and 10000 cycles in ionic liquid electrolyte. Moreover, the symmetric supercapacitors deliver high energy/power densities of 49.8 W∙h∙kg^–1/2477.8 W∙kg^–1 in the Et₄NBF₄ electrolyte, outperforming the majority of previously reported porous carbon-based symmetric supercapacitors in ionic liquid electrolytes.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

self-activation / zinc organic salts / abundant mesopores / symmetric supercapacitor / liquid electrolyte

References

[1] Poonam S K, Arora A, Tripathi S K. Review of supercapacitors: materials and devices. Journal of Energy Storage, 2019, 21: 801–825

[2] Qin Y, Liao Y, Liu J, Tian C, Xu H, Wu Y. Research progress of wood-derived energy storage materials. Journal of Forestry Engineering, 2021, 6(5): 1–13 (in Chinese)

[3] Jin Z, Yang L, Shi S, Wang T, Duan G, Liu X, Li Y. Flexible polydopamine bioelectronics. Advanced Functional Materials, 2021, 31(30): 2103391

[4] Chen Y, Zhang Q, Chi M, Guo C, Wang S, Min D. Preparation and performance of different carbonized wood electrodes. Journal of Forestry Engineering, 2022, 7(3): 127–135 (in Chinese)

[5] Yu J, Liu S, Duan G, Fang H, Hou H. Dense and thin coating of gel polymer electrolyte on sulfur cathode toward high performance Li−sulfur battery. Composites Communications, 2020, 19: 239–245

[6] Gonzalez A, Goikolea E, Barrena J A, Mysyk R. Review on supercapacitors: technologies and materials. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 58: 1189–1206

[7] Wang G P, Zhang L, Zhang J J. A review of electrode materials for electrochemical supercapacitors. Chemical Society Reviews, 2012, 41(2): 797–828

[8] Guo W, Guo X, Yang L, Wang T, Zhang M, Duan G, Liu X, Li Y. Synthetic melanin facilitates MnO supercapacitors with high specific capacitance and wide operation potential window. Polymer, 2021, 235: 124276

[9] Han Z, Zhong W, Wang K. Preparation and examination of nitrogen-doped bamboo porous carbon for supercapacitor materials. Journal of Forestry Engineering, 2020, 5(5): 76–83 (in Chinese)

[10] Wang Y, Zhang L, Hou H, Xu W, Duan G, He S, Liu K, Jiang S. Recent progress in carbon-based materials for supercapacitor electrodes: a review. Journal of Materials Science, 2021, 56(1): 173–200

[11] Yang L, Guo X, Jin Z, Guo W, Duan G, Liu X, Li Y. Emergence of melanin-inspired supercapacitors. Nano Today, 2021, 37: 101075

[12] Han X, Xiao G, Wang Y, Chen X, Duan G, Wu Y, Gong X, Wang H. Design and fabrication of conductive polymer hydrogels and their applications in flexible supercapacitors. Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2020, 8(44): 23059–23095

[13] You B, Wang L L, Yao L, Yang J. Three dimensional N-doped graphene-CNT networks for supercapacitor. Chemical Communications, 2013, 49(44): 5016–5018

[14] Wang W, Lv H, Du J, Chen A. Fabrication of N-doped carbon nanobelts from a polypyrrole tube by confined pyrolysis for supercapacitors. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2021, 15(5): 1312–1321

[15] Cheng Y L, Huang L, Xiao X, Yao B, Yuan L Y, Li T Q, Hu Z M, Wang B, Wan J, Zhou J. Flexible and cross-linked N-doped carbon nanofiber network for high performance freestanding supercapacitor electrode. Nano Energy, 2015, 15: 66–74

[16] Faraji S, Ani F N. The development supercapacitor from activated carbon by electroless plating—a review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 42: 823–834

[17] Wang N, Huang X, Zhang L, Hu J, Chao Y, Zhao R. Pyrolysis transformation of ZIF-8 wrapped with polytriazine to nitrogen enriched core−shell polyhedrons carbon for supercapacitor. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2021, 15(4): 944–953

[18] Hao P, Zhao Z H, Tian J, Li H D, Sang Y H, Yu G W, Cai H Q, Liu H, Wong C P, Umar A. Hierarchical porous carbon aerogel derived from bagasse for high performance supercapacitor electrode. Nanoscale, 2014, 6(20): 12120–12129

[19] Wang H, Niu H T, Wang H J, Wang W Y, Jin X, Wang H X, Zhou H, Lin T. Micro-meso porous structured carbon nanofibers with ultra-high surface area and large supercapacitor electrode capacitance. Journal of Power Sources, 2021, 482: 228986

[20] Song M Y, Zhou Y H, Ren X, Wan J F, Du Y Y, Wu G, Ma F W. Biowaste-based porous carbon for supercapacitor: the influence of preparation processes on structure and performance. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2019, 535: 276–286

[21] Ai T, Wang Z, Zhang H R, Hong F H, Yan X, Su X H. Novel synthesis of nitrogen-containing bio-phenol resin and its molten salt activation of porous carbon for supercapacitor electrode. Materials, 2019, 12(12): 1986

[22] Dai J D, Wang L L, Xie A, He J S, Yan Y S. Reactive template and confined self-activation strategy: three-dimensional interconnected hierarchically porous N/O-doped carbon foam for enhanced supercapacitors. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2020, 8(2): 739–748

[23] Dat N T, Tran T T V, Van C N, Vo D V N, Kongparakul S, Zhang H B, Guan G Q, Samart C. Carbon sequestration through hydrothermal carbonization of expired fresh milk and its application in supercapacitor. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2020, 143: 105836

[24] Dong D, Zhang Y S, Wang T, Wang J W, Romero C E, Pan W P. Enhancing the pore wettability of coal-based porous carbon as electrode materials for high performance supercapacitors. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2020, 252: 123381

[25] Dong D, Zhang Y S, Xiao Y, Wang T, Wang J W, Gao W. Oxygen-enriched coal-based porous carbon under plasma-assisted MgCO₃ activation as supercapacitor electrodes. Fuel, 2022, 309: 122168

[26] Chen J, Xiao G, Duan G, Wu Y, Zhao X, Gong X. Structural design of carbon dots/porous materials composites and their applications. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 421: 127743

[27] Kong D B, Qin C Y, Cao L, Fang Z M, Lai F L, Lin Z D, Zhang P, Li W, Lin H J. Synthesis of biomass-based porous carbon nanofibre/polyaniline composites for supercapacitor electrode materials. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2020, 15(1): 265–279

[28] Liu N. Influence of ZnCl₂ activation on structure and electrochemical performance of carbon aerogel spheres. Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica, 2013, 29(3): 551–556 (in Chinese)

[29] Zhang Q, Yan B, Feng L, Zheng J, You B, Chen J, Zhao X, Zhang C, Jiang S, He S. Progress in the use of organic potassium salts for the synthesis of porous carbon nanomaterials: microstructure engineering for advanced supercapacitors. Nanoscale, 2022, 14(23): 8216–8244

[30] Lee K S, Seo Y J, Jeong H T. Capacitive behavior of functionalized activated carbon-based all-solid-state supercapacitor. Carbon Letters, 2021, 31(5): 1041–1049

[31] Peng C, Zeng T Q, Kuai Z Y, Li Z F, Yu Y, Zuo J T, Jin Y, Wang Y H, Li L. A self-activation green strategy to fabricate N/P Co-doped carbon for excellent electrochemical performance. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2019, 166(14): A3287–A3293

[32] Rufford T E, Hulicova-Jurcakova D, Khosla K, Zhu Z H, Lu G Q. Microstructure and electrochemical double-layer capacitance of carbon electrodes prepared by zinc chloride activation of sugar cane bagasse. Journal of Power Sources, 2010, 195(3): 912–918

[33] Sandhiya M, Nadira M P, Sathish M. Fabrication of flexible supercapacitor using N-doped porous activated carbon derived from poultry waste. Energy & Fuels, 2021, 35(18): 15094–15100

[34] Wu X, Ding B, Zhang C, Li B, Fan Z. Self-activation of nitrogen and sulfur dual-doping hierarchical porous carbons for asymmetric supercapacitors with high energy densities. Carbon, 2019, 153: 225–233

[35] Yan D, Liu L, Wang X Y, Xu K, Zhong J H. Biomass-derived activated carbon nanoarchitectonics with hibiscus flowers for high-performance supercapacitor electrode applications. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 2022, 45(4): 649–657

[36] Yang B B, Zhang D Y, He J J, Wang Y L, Wang K J, Li H X, Wang Y, Miao L, Ren R Y, Xie M. Simple and green fabrication of a biomass-derived N and O self-doped hierarchical porous carbon via a self-activation route for supercapacitor application. Carbon Letters, 2020, 30(6): 709–719

[37] Wang T, Tan S, Liang C. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from wood via microwave-induced ZnCl₂ activation. Carbon, 2009, 47(7): 1880–1883

[38] Yue Z, Mangun C L, Economy J. Preparation of fibrous porous materials by chemical activation: 1. ZnCl₂ activation of polymer-coated fibers. Carbon, 2002, 40(8): 1181–1191

[39] Yao L, Wu Q, Zhang P, Zhang J, Wang D, Li Y, Ren X, Mi H, Deng L, Zheng Z. Scalable 2D hierarchical porous carbon nanosheets for flexible supercapacitors with ultrahigh energy density. Advanced Materials, 2018, 30(11): 1706054

[40] Shang Z, An X, Zhang H, Shen M, Baker F, Liu Y, Liu L, Yang J, Cao H, Xu Q, Liu H, Ni Y. Houttuynia-derived nitrogen-doped hierarchically porous carbon for high-performance supercapacitor. Carbon, 2020, 161: 62–70

[41] Wang H, Xu Z, Kohandehghan A, Li Z, Cui K, Tan X, Stephenson T J, King’ondu C K, Holt C M B, Olsen B C, Tak J K, Harfield D, Anyia A O, Mitlin D. Interconnected carbon nanosheets derived from hemp for ultrafast supercapacitors with high energy. ACS Nano, 2013, 7(6): 5131–5141

[42] Zheng W, Halim J, Persson P O Å, Rosen J, Barsoum M W. MXene-based symmetric supercapacitors with high voltage and high energy density. Materials Reports: Energy, 2022, 2(1): 100078

[43] Shao R, Niu J, Liang J, Liu M, Zhang Z, Dou M, Huang Y, Wang F. Mesopore- and macropore-dominant nitrogen-doped hierarchically porous carbons for high-energy and ultrafast supercapacitors in non-aqueous electrolytes. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2017, 9(49): 42797–42805

[44] Wong S I, Lin H, Ma T, Sunarso J, Wong B T, Jia B. Binary ionic liquid electrolyte design for ultrahigh-energy density graphene-based supercapacitors. Materials Reports: Energy, 2022, 2(2): 100093

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press