Toughening of vinyl ester resins by two-dimensional MXene nanosheets

Abstract

Two-dimensional nanosheets are highly effective tougheners for vinyl ester resins. The toughening effect is related to the high specific surface area and unique two-dimensional planar structure of the nanosheets. In this study, a coupling agent γ-(2,3-epoxypropoxy) propytrimethoxysilane (Kh-560) was used to modify MXene nanosheets (M-MXene) for use in toughening vinyl ester resin. The mechanical properties, including the tensile strength, flexural strength, Young’s modulus and elongation, of neat vinyl ester resin and vinyl ester resin modified with MXene and M-MXene were investigated. The results showed that modification significantly improved the mechanical properties of the vinyl ester resin. The tensile and flexural strengths of the MXene-nanosheet-modified vinyl ester resin were 27.20% and 25.32% higher, respectively, than those of the neat vinyl ester resin. The coupling agent improved the interfacial compatibility between the MXene nanosheets and vinyl ester resin, which resulted in the tensile and flexural strengths of the M-MXene-nanosheet-modified vinyl ester resin being 52.57% and 54.60% higher, respectively, than those of the neat vinyl ester resin for a loading quantity of nanosheets of only 0.04 wt %, which is economically viable. The main mechanisms by which the nanosheets toughen the resin are crack deflection and crack pinning.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

MXene nanosheets / 2D material / vinyl ester resin / modification / coupling agent

References

[1] Arrieta J S, Richaud E, Fayolle B, Nizeyimana F. Thermal oxidation of vinyl ester and unsaturated polyester resins. Polymer Degradation & Stability, 2016, 129: 142–155

[2] Kandola B K, Ebdon J R, Zhou C. Development of vinyl ester resins with improved flame retardant properties for structural marine applications. Reactive & Functional Polymers, 2018, 129: 111–122

[3] Cano L, Builes D H, Tercjak A, Carrasco-Hernandez S, Gutierrez J, Tercjak A. Quantitative nanomechanical property mapping of epoxy thermosetting system modified with poly(ethylene oxide-b-propylene oxide-b-ethylene oxide) triblock copolymer. Polymer Testing, 2017, 57: 38–41

[4] Liu X F, Luo X, Liu B W, Zhong H Y, Guo D M, Yang R, Chen L, Wang Y Z. Toughening epoxy resin using a liquid crystalline elastomer for versatile application. ACS Applied Polymer Materials, 2019, 1(9): 2291–2301

[5] Januszewski R, Dutkiewicz M, Nowicki M, Szołyga M, Kownacki I. Synthesis and properties of epoxy resin modified with novel reactive liquid rubber-based systems. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2021, 60(5): 2178–2186

[6] Robinette E J, Ziaee S, Palmese G R. Toughening of vinyl ester resin using butadiene-acrylonitrile rubber modifiers. Polymer, 2004, 45(18): 6143–6154

[7] Zhang D, Jia D, Huang X. Bisphenol—a epoxy resin reinforced and toughened by hyperbranched epoxy resin. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2007, 1(4): 349–354

[8] Francis R, Baby D K. Toughening of Epoxy Thermoset with polystyrene-block-polyglycolic acid star copolymer: nanostructure-mechanical property correlation. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2014, 53(46): 17945–17951

[9] Qu C B, Wu T, Huang G W, Li N, Li M, Ma J L, Liu Y, Xiao H M. Improving cryogenic mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced composites based on epoxy resin toughened by hydroxyl-terminated polyurethane. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2021, 210: 108569

[10] Goyat M S, Hooda A, Gupta T K, Kumar K, Halder S, Ghosh P K, Dehiya B S. Role of non-functionalized oxide nanoparticles on mechanical properties and toughening mechanisms of epoxy nanocomposites. Ceramics International, 2021, 16(47): 22316–22344

[11] Yang J N, Xu Y X, Su C, Nie S B, Li Z Y. Synthesis of hierarchical nanohybrid CNT@Ni-PS and its applications in enhancing the tribological, curing and thermal properties of epoxy nanocomposites. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2021, 15(5): 1281–1295

[12] Singh R P, Zhang M, Chan D. Toughening of a brittle thermosetting polymer: effects of reinforcement particle size and volume fraction. Journal of Materials Science, 2002, 37(4): 781–788

[13] Goyat M S, Rana S, Halder S, Ghosh P K. Facile fabrication of epoxy-TiO₂ nanocomposites: a critical analysis of TiO₂ impact on mechanical properties and toughening mechanisms. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 2018, 40: 861–873

[14] Yang J Y, Wang H X, Liu X H, Fu S Y, Song P G. A nano-TiO₂/regenerated cellulose biohybrid enables simultaneously improved strength and toughness of solid epoxy resins. Composites Science and Technology, 2021, 212: 108884

[15] Zhang M, Singh R P. Mechanical reinforcement of unsaturated polyester by Al₂O₃ nanoparticles. Materials Letters, 2004, 58(3–4): 408–412

[16] Naguib M, Mochalin V N, Barsoum M W, Gogotsi Y. 25th anniversary article: MXenes: a new family of two-dimensional materials. Advanced Materials, 2014, 26(7): 992–1005

[17] An B, Li M, Wang J, Li C. Shape/size controlling syntheses, properties and applications of two-dimensional noble metal nanocrystals. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2016, 10(3): 360–382

[18] Rafiee M A, Rafiee J, Srivastava I, Wang Z, Song H H, Yu Z Z, Koratkar N. Fracture and fatigue in graphene nanocomposites. Small, 2010, 6(2): 179–183

[19] He S Y, Petkovich N D, Liu K W, Qian Y Q, Macosko C W, Stein A. Unsaturated polyester resin toughening with very low loadings of GO derivatives. Polymer, 2017, 110: 149–157

[20] Li T Q, He S Y, Stein A, Francis L F, Bates F S. Synergistic toughening of epoxy modified by graphene and block copolymer micelles. Macromolecules, 2016, 49(24): 9507–9520

[21] He S Y, Qian Y Q, Liu K W, Macosko C W, Stein A. Effects of inorganic fillers on toughening of vinyl dster resins by modified graphene oxide. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2018, 57(13): 4592–4599

[22] Wang W, Wei Y, Fan J, Cai J, Lu Z, Ding L, Wang H. Recent progress of two-dimensional nanosheet membranes and composite membranes for separation applications. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2021, 15(4): 793–819

[23] Qu K, Huang K, Xu Z. Recent progress in the design and fabrication of MXene-based membranes. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2021, 15(4): 820–836

[24] Dun M, Hao J, Wang W, Wang G, Cheng H. Sisal fiber reinforced high density polyethylene pre-preg for potential application in filament winding. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2019, 159: 369–377

[25] Douaihy Z K, Telegeiev I, Nasrallah H, Lebedev O, Bazin P, Vimont A, Chailan J F, Fahs A, EL-Roz M. EL-Roz M. Synthesis of silica-polymer core-shell hybrid materials with enhanced mechanical properties using a new bifunctional silane-based photoinitiator as coupling agent. Materials Today. Communications, 2021, 27: 102248

[26] Ahangaran F, Navarchian A H. Recent advances in chemical surface modification of metal oxide nanoparticles with silane coupling agents: a review. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2020, 286: 102298

[27] Lu Z, Wu Y, Ding L, Wei Y Y, Wang H H. A lamellar MXene (Ti₃C₂T_x)/PSS composite membrane for fast and selective lithium-ion separation. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2021, 60(41): 22265–22269

[28] Deng J J, Lu Z, Ding L, Li Z K, Wei Y Y, Caro J, Wang H H. Fast electrophoretic preparation of large-area two-dimensional titanium carbide membranes for ion sieving. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 408: 127806

[29] Lu Z, Wei Y Y, Deng J J, Ding L, Li Z K, Wang H H. Self-crosslinked MXene (Ti₃C₂T_x) membranes with good antiswelling property for monovalent metal ion exclusion. ACS Nano, 2019, 13(9): 10535–10544

[30] Ding L, Li L B, Liu Y C, Wu Y, Lu Z, Deng J J, Wei Y Y, Caro J, Wang H H. Effective ion sieving with Ti₃C₂T_x MXene membranes for production of drinking water from seawater. Nature Sustainability, 2020, 3(4): 296–302

[31] Silverstein R M, Bassler G C, Morrill T C. Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981,

[32] He S Y, Qian Y Q, Liu K W, Macosko C W, Stein A. Modified-graphene-oxide-containing styrene masterbatches for thermosets. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2017, 56(40): 11443–11450

[33] Evora V M F, Shukla A. Fabrication, characterization, and dynamic behavior of polyester/TiO₂ nanocomposites. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2003, 361(1–2): 358–366

[34] Tang L C, Zhang H, Sprenger S, Ye L, Zhang Z. Fracture mechanisms of epoxy-based ternary composites filled with rigid-soft particles. Composites Science and Technology, 2012, 72(5): 558–565

[35] Liu T, Tjiu W C, Tong Y, He C, Goh S S, Chung T S. Morphology and fracture behavior of intercalated epoxy/clay nanocomposites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2010, 94(3): 1236–1244

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press