Review of recent advances of polymer based dielectrics for high-energy storage in electronic power devices from the perspective of target applications

Abstract

Polymer-based dielectric capacitors are widely-used energy storage devices. However, although the functions of dielectrics in applications like high-voltage direct current transmission projects, distributed energy systems, high-power pulse systems and new energy electric vehicles are similar, their requirements can be quite different. Low electric loss is a critical prerequisite for capacitors for electric grids, while high-temperature stability is an essential pre-requirement for those in electric vehicles. This paper reviews recent advances in this area, and categorizes dielectrics in terms of their foremost properties related to their target applications. Requirements for polymer-based dielectrics in various power electronic equipment are emphasized, including high energy storage density, low dissipation, high working temperature and fast-response time. This paper considers innovations including chemical structure modification, composite fabrication and structure re-design, and the enhancements to material performances achieved. The advantages and limitations of these methods are also discussed.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

dielectric capacitors / polymer-based dielectrics / energy density / dielectric loss / working temperature / frequency response

References

[1] Amri F. Renewable and non-renewable categories of energy consumption and trade: Do the development degree and the industrialization degree matter? Energy, 2019, 173: 374–383

[2] Tabor D P, Roch L M, Saikin S K, Kreistoph C, Sheberla D, Montoya J H, Dwaraknath S, Aykol M, Ortiz C, Tribukait H, Accelerating the discovery of materials for clean energy in the era of smart automation. Nature Reviews. Materials, 2018, 3(5): 5–20

[3] Beltrop K, Beuker S, Heckmann A, Winter M, Placke T. Alternative electrochemical energy storage: Potassium-based dual-graphite batteries. Energy & Environmental Science, 2017, 10(10): 2090–2094

[4] Wu J, Pan Z, Zhang Y, Wang B, Peng H. The recent progress of nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterials for electrochemical batteries. Journal of Materials Chemistry. A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2018, 6(27): 12932–12944

[5] Fic K, Platek A, Piwek J, Frackowiak E. Sustainable materials for electrochemical capacitors. Materials Today, 2018, 21(4): 437–454

[6] González A, Goikolea E, Barrena J A, Mysyk R. Review on supercapacitors: Technologies and materials. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 58: 1189–1206

[7] Eftekhari A. The mechanism of ultrafast supercapacitors. Journal of Materials Chemistry. A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2018, 6(7): 2866–2876

[8] Niaz S, Manzoor T, Pandith A H. Hydrogen storage: Materials, methods and perspectives. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 50: 457–469

[9] Barthelemy H, Weber M, Barbier F. Hydrogen storage: Recent improvements and industrial perspectives. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2017, 42(11): 7254–7262

[10] Ahmed A, Seth S, Purewal J, Wong-Foy A G, Veenstra M, Matzger A J, Siegel D J. Exceptional hydrogen storage achieved by screening nearly half a million metal-organic frameworks. Nature Communications, 2019, 10(1): 1568

[11] Xue Y, Zhang X P, Yang C. Series capacitor compensated AC filterless flexible LCC HVDC with enhanced power transfer under unbalanced faults. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2019, 34(4): 3069–3080

[12] Yuan X, Liu X, Zuo J. The development of new energy vehicles for a sustainable future: A review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 42: 298–305

[13] Satyanarayana N, Rajawat R K, Basu S, Durga Prasad Rao A, Mittal K C. High power microwaves generation from intense relativistic electron beam using Kali-1000 pulse power system. Instruments and Experimental Techniques, 2016, 59(3): 368–373

[14] Winter M, Brodd R J. What are batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors? Chemical Reviews, 2005, 105(3): 1021–1021

[15] Tomago A, Shimizu T, Iijima Y, Yamauchi I. Development of oil-impregnated, all-polypropylene-film power capacitor. IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, 1977, EI-12(4): 293–301

[16] Zhu Y, Jiang P, Zhang Z, Huang X. Dielectric phenomena and electrical energy storage of poly (vinylidene fluoride) based high-k polymers. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2017, 28(11): 2027–2035

[17] Prateek, Thakur V K, Gupta R K. Recent progress on ferroelectric polymer-based nanocomposites for high energy density capacitors: synthesis, dielectric properties, and future aspects. Chemical Reviews, 2016, 116(7): 4260–4317

[18] Chen Q, Shen Y, Zhang S, Zhang Q M. Polymer-based dielectrics with high energy storage density. Annual Review of Materials Research, 2015, 45(1): 433–458

[19] Li Q, Yao F Z, Liu Y, Zhang G, Wang H, Wang Q. High-temperature dielectric materials for electrical energy storage. Annual Review of Materials Research, 2018, 48(1): 219–243

[20] Zhu L, Wang Q. Novel ferroelectric polymers for high energy density and low loss dielectrics. Macromolecules, 2012, 45(7): 2937–2954

[21] Zhu L. Exploring strategies for high dielectric constant and low loss polymer dielectrics. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2014, 5(21): 3677–3687

[22] Chung D D L. Composite Materials: Functional Materials for Modern Technologies. London: Springer-Verlag, 2004, 125–166

[23] Kittel C. Introduction to Solid State Physics. New York: Wiley, 1976, 53–485

[24] Yao Z, Song Z, Hao H, Yu Z, Cao M, Zhang S, Lanagan M, Liu H. Homogeneous/inhomogeneous—structured dielectrics and their energy—storage performances. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(20): 1601727

[25] Palneedi H, Peddigari M, Hwang G T, Jeong D Y, Ryu J. High-performance dielectric ceramic films for energy storage capacitors: Progress and outlook. Advanced Functional Materials, 2018, 28(42): 1803665

[26] Kutnjak Z, Petzelt J, Blinc R. The giant electromechanical response in ferroelectric relaxors as a critical phenomenon. Nature, 2006, 441(7096): 956–959

[27] Liu Z K, Li X, Zhang Q M. Maximizing the number of coexisting phases near invariant critical points for giant electrocaloric and electromechanical responses in ferroelectrics. Applied Physics Letters, 2012, 101(8): 082904

[28] Yao K, Chen S, Rahimabady M, Mirshekarloo M S, Yu S, Tay F E H, Sritharan T, Lu L. Nonlinear dielectric thin films for high-power electric storage with energy density comparable with electrochemical supercapacitors. IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, 2011, 58(9): 1968–1974

[29] Guo N, DiBenedetto S A, Tewari P, Lanagan M T, Ratner M A, Marks T J. Nanoparticle, size, shape, and interfacial effects on leakage current density, permittivity, and breakdown strength of metal oxide- polyolefin nanocomposites: Experiment and theory. Chemistry of Materials, 2010, 22(4): 1567–1578

[30] Li W, Meng Q, Zheng Y, Zhang Z, Xia W, Xu Z. Electric energy storage properties of poly (vinylidene fluoride). Applied Physics Letters, 2010, 96(19): 192905

[31] Xia W, Zhang Z. PVDF-based dielectric polymers and their applications in electronic materials. IET Nanodielectrics, 2018, 1(1): 17–31

[32] Farmer B L, Hopfinger A J, Lando J B. Polymorphism of poly (vinylidene fluoride): Potential energy calculations of the effects of head-to-head units on the chain conformation and packing of poly (vinylidene fluoride). Journal of Applied Physics, 1972, 43(11): 4293–4303

[33] Han R, Jin J, Khanchaitit P, Wang J, Wang Q. Effect of crystal structure on polarization reversal and energy storage of ferroelectric poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene) thin films. Polymer, 2012, 53(6): 1277–1281

[34] Bharti V, Zhao X Z, Zhang Q M, Romotowski T, Tito F, Ting R. Ultrahigh field induced strain and polarization response in electron irradiated poly (vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) copolymer. Materials Research Innovations, 1998, 2(2): 57–63

[35] Xu H, Shanthi G, Bharti V, Zhang Q M, Ramotowski T. Structural, conformational, and polarization changes of poly (vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) copolymer induced by high-energy electron irradiation. Macromolecules, 2000, 33(11): 4125–4131

[36] Guan F, Wang J, Pan J, Wang Q, Zhu L. Effects of polymorphism and crystallite size on dipole reorientation in poly (vinylidene fluoride) and its random copolymers. Macromolecules, 2010, 43(16): 6739–6748

[37] Gadinski M R, Chanthad C, Han K, Dong L, Wang Q. Synthesis of poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-bromotrifluoroethylene) and effects of molecular defects on microstructure and dielectric properties. Polymer Chemistry, 2014, 5(20): 5957–5966

[38] Daudin B, Dubus M, Legrand J F. Effects of electron irradiation and annealing on ferroelectric vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene copolymers. Journal of Applied Physics, 1987, 62(3): 994–997

[39] Zhang Y, Zhang C, Feng Y, Zhang T, Chen Q, Chi Q, Liu L, Wang X, Lei Q. Energy storage enhancement of P (VDF-TrFE-CFE)-based composites with double-shell structured BZCT nanofibers of parallel and orthogonal configurations. Nano Energy, 2019, 66: 104195

[40] Zhang Y, Chi Q, Liu L, Zhang C, Chen C, Wang X, Lei Q. Enhanced electric polarization and breakdown strength in the all-organic sandwich-structured poly (vinylidene fluoride)-based dielectric film for high energy density capacitor. APL Materials, 2017, 5(7): 076109

[41] Gadinski M R, Li Q, Zhang G, Zhang X, Wang Q. Understanding of relaxor ferroelectric behavior of poly (vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene) terpolymers. Macromolecules, 2015, 48(8): 2731–2739

[42] Zhang D, Liu W, Guo R, Zhou K, Luo H. High discharge energy density at low electric field using an aligned titanium dioxide/lead zirconate titanate nanowire array. Advancement of Science, 2018, 5(2): 1700512

[43] Wei J, Zhang Z, Tseng J K, Treufeld I, Liu X, Litt M H, Zhu L. Achieving high dielectric constant and low loss property in a dipolar glass polymer containing strongly dipolar and small-sized sulfone groups. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2015, 7(9): 5248–5257

[44] Thakur V K, Tan E J, Lin M F, Lee P S. Poly (vinylidene fluoride)-graft-poly (2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate): A novel material for high energy density capacitors. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2011, 21(11): 3751–3759

[45] Li J, Tan S, Ding S, Li H, Yang L, Zhang Z. High-field antiferroelectric behaviour and minimized energy loss in poly (vinylidene-co-trifluoroethylene)-graft-poly (ethyl methacrylate) for energy storage application. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2012, 22(44): 23468–23476

[46] Bendler J T, Boyles D A, Edmondson C A, Filipova T, Fontanella J J, Westgate M A, Wintersgill M C. Dielectric properties of bisphenol A polycarbonate and its tethered nitrile analogue. Macromolecules, 2013, 46(10): 4024–4033

[47] Hao Y, Wang X, Bi K, Zhang J, Huang Y, Wu L, Zhao P, Xu K, Lei M, Li L. Significantly enhanced energy storage performance promoted by ultimate sized ferroelectric BaTiO₃ fillers in nanocomposite films. Nano Energy, 2017, 31: 49–56

[48] Bi K, Bi M, Hao Y, Luo W, Cai Z, Wang X, Huang Y. Ultrafine core-shell BaTiO₃@SiO₂ structures for nanocomposite capacitors with high energy density. Nano Energy, 2018, 51: 513–523

[49] Wu P, Zhang L, Shan X. Microstructure and dielectric response of BaSrTiO₃/P (VDF-CTFE) nanocomposites. Materials Letters, 2015, 159: 72–75

[50] Lu X, Zhang L, Tong Y, Cheng Z. BST-P (VDF-CTFE) nanocomposite films with high dielectric constant, low dielectric loss, and high energy-storage density. Composites. Part B, Engineering, 2019, 168: 34–43

[51] Yao L, Pan Z, Zhai J, Zhang G, Liu Z, Liu Y. High-energy-density with polymer nanocomposites containing of SrTiO₃ nanofibers for capacitor application. Composites. Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2018, 109: 48–54

[52] Yao L, Pan Z, Liu S, Zhai J, Chen H. Significantly enhanced energy density in nanocomposite capacitors combining the TiO₂ nanorod array with poly(vinylidene fluoride). ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2016, 8(39): 26343–26351

[53] Gu L, Li T, Xu Y, Sun C, Yang Z, Zhu D, Chen D. Effects of the particle size of BaTiO₃ fillers on fabrication and dielectric properties of BaTiO₃/polymer/Al films for capacitor energy-storage application. Materials (Basel), 2019, 12(3): 439

[54] Xie B, Zhang H, Zhang Q, Zang J, Yang C, Wang Q, Li M Y, Jiang S. Enhanced energy density of polymer nanocomposites at a low electric field through aligned BaTiO₃ nanowires. Journal of Materials Chemistry. A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2017, 5(13): 6070–6078

[55] Bai Y, Cheng Z Y, Bharti V, Xu H, Zhang M. High-dielectric-constant ceramic-powder polymer composites. Applied Physics Letters, 2000, 76(25): 3804–3806

[56] Wang S, Sun J, Tong L, Guo Y, Wang H, Wang C. Superior dielectric properties in Na_0.35%Ba_99.65%Ti_99.65%Nb_0.35%O₃/PVDF composites. Materials Letters, 2018, 211: 114–117

[57] Bauhofer W, Kovacs J Z. A review and analysis of electrical percolation in carbon nanotube polymer composites. Composites Science and Technology, 2009, 69(10): 1486–1498

[58] Nuzhnyy D, Savinov M, Bovtun V, Kempa M, Petzelt J, Mayoral B, McNally T. Broad-band conductivity and dielectric spectroscopy of composites of multiwalled carbon nanotubes and poly(ethylene terephthalate) around their low percolation threshold. Nanotechnology, 2013, 24(5): 055707

[59] Zhang L, Wang W, Wang X, Bass P, Cheng Z. Metal-polymer nanocomposites with high percolation threshold and high dielectric constant. Applied Physics Letters, 2013, 103(23): 232903

[60] Zhang L, Gao R, Hu P, Dang Z. Preparation and dielectric properties of polymer composites incorporated with polydopamine@AgNPs core-satellite particles. RSC Advances, 2016, 6(41): 34529–34533

[61] Wen R, Guo J, Zhao C, Liu Y. Nanocomposite capacitors with significantly enhanced energy density and breakdown strength utilizing a small loading of monolayer titania. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2018, 5(3): 1701088

[62] Sheng Y, Zhang X, Ye H, Liang L, Xu L, Wu H. Improved energy density in core-shell poly (dopamine) coated barium titanate/poly(fluorovinylidene-co-trifluoroethylene) nanocomposite with interfacial polarization. Colloids and Surfaces. A, Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 2020, 585: 124091

[63] Sun H, Zhang H, Liu S, Ning N, Zhang L, Tian M, Wang Y. Interfacial polarization and dielectric properties of aligned carbon nanotubes/polymer composites: The role of molecular polarity. Composites Science and Technology, 2018, 154: 145–153

[64] Wang Q, Zhu L. Polymer nanocomposites for electrical energy storage. Journal of Polymer Science. Part B, Polymer Physics, 2011, 49(20): 1421–1429

[65] Tanaka T, Kozako M, Fuse N, Ohki Y. Proposal of a multi-core model for polymer nanocomposite dielectrics. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 2005, 12(4): 669–681

[66] Lewis T J. Interfaces: Nanometric dielectrics. Journal of Physics. D, Applied Physics, 2005, 38(2): 202–212

[67] Krishnamoorti R. Strategies for dispersing nanoparticles in polymers. MRS Bulletin, 2007, 32(4): 341–347

[68] Zhang X, Chen W, Wang J, Shen Y, Gu L, Lin Y, Nan C W. Hierarchical interfaces induce high dielectric permittivity in nanocomposites containing TiO₂@BaTiO₃ nanofibers. Nanoscale, 2014, 6(12): 6701–6709

[69] Zhou T, Zha J W, Cui R, Fan B, Yuan J, Dang Z. Improving dielectric properties of BaTiO₃/ferroelectric polymer composites by employing surface hydroxylated BaTiO₃ nanoparticles. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2011, 3(7): 2184–2188

[70] Lin M F, Thakur V K, Tan E J, Lee P. Surface functionalization of BaTiO₃ nanoparticles and improved electrical properties of BaTiO₃/polyvinylidene fluoride composite. RSC Advances, 2011, 1(4): 576–578

[71] Chen T, Liu B. Enhanced dielectric properties of poly (vinylidene fluoride) composite filled with polyaniline-iron core-shell nanocomposites. Materials Letters, 2018, 210: 165–168

[72] Haleem M N, Rajapakse A D. Fault type discrimination in HVDC transmission lines using rate of change of local currents. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 2019, 885: 8977

[73] Li W, Jiang L, Zhang X, Shen Y, Nan C. High-energy-density dielectric films based on polyvinylidene fluoride and aromatic polythiourea for capacitors. Journal of Materials Chemistry. A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2014, 2(38): 15803–15807

[74] Zheng M S, Zha J W, Yang Y, Han P, Hu C, Wen Y, Dang Z. Polyurethane induced high breakdown strength and high energy storage density in polyurethane/poly (vinylidene fluoride) composite films. Applied Physics Letters, 2017, 110(25): 252902

[75] Zheng M S, Zha J W, Yang Y, Han P, Hu C, Dang Z. Enhanced breakdown strength of poly (vinylidene fluoride) utilizing rubber nanoparticles for energy storage application. Applied Physics Letters, 2016, 109(7): 072902

[76] Hu P, Song Y, Liu H, Shen Y, Lin Y, Nan C. Largely enhanced energy density in flexible P (VDF-TrFE) nanocomposites by surface-modified electrospun BaSrTiO₃ fibers. Journal of Materials Chemistry. A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2013, 1(5): 1688–1693

[77] Zhang Y, Zhang C, Feng Y, Zhang T, Chen Q, Chi Q, Liu L, Cui Y, Wang X, Dang Z, Lei Q. Excellent energy storage performance and thermal property of polymer-based composite induced by multifunctional one-dimensional nanofibers oriented in-plane direction. Nano Energy, 2019, 56: 138–150

[78] Zhang X, Shen Y, Xu B, Zhang Q, Gu L, Jiang J, Ma J, Lin Y, Nan C. Giant energy density and improved discharge efficiency of solution-processed polymer nanocomposites for dielectric energy storage. Advanced Materials, 2016, 28(10): 2055–2061

[79] Zhang X, Shen Y, Zhang Q, Gu L, Hu Y, Du J, Lin Y, Nan W. Ultrahigh energy density of polymer nanocomposites containing BaTiO₃@TiO₂ nanofibers by atomic-scale interface engineering. Advanced Materials, 2015, 27(5): 819–824

[80] Pan Z, Yao L, Zhai J, Wang H, Shen B. Ultrafast discharge and enhanced energy density of polymer nanocomposites loaded with 0.5(Ba_0.7Ca_0.3)TiO₃-0.5Ba(Zr_0.2Ti_0.8)O₃ one-dimensional nanofibers. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2017, 9(16): 14337–14346

[81] Li Q, Zhang G, Liu F, Han K, Gadinski M R, Xiong C X, Wang Q. Solution-processed ferroelectric terpolymer nanocomposites with high breakdown strength and energy density utilizing boron nitride nanosheets. Energy & Environmental Science, 2015, 8(3): 922–931

[82] Xie Y, Yu Y, Feng Y, Jiang W, Zhang Z. Fabrication of stretchable nanocomposites with high energy density and low loss from cross-linked PVDF filled with poly (dopamine) encapsulated BaTiO₃. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2017, 9(3): 2995–3005

[83] Luo S, Yu J, Yu S, Sun R, Cao L, Liao W, Wong C. Significantly enhanced electrostatic energy storage performance of flexible polymer composites by introducing highly insulating-ferroelectric microhybrids as fillers. Advanced Energy Materials, 2019, 9(5): 1803204

[84] Wang Y, Cui J, Yuan Q, Niu Y, Bai Y, Wang H. Significantly enhanced breakdown strength and energy density in sandwich-structured barium titanate/poly (vinylidene fluoride) nanocomposites. Advanced Materials, 2015, 27(42): 6658–6663

[85] Baer E, Zhu L. 50th anniversary perspective: Dielectric phenomena in polymers and multilayered dielectric films. Macromolecules, 2017, 50(6): 2239–2256

[86] Nian W, Wang Z, Wang T, Xiao Y, Chen H. Significantly enhanced breakdown strength and energy density in sandwich-structured NBT/PVDF composites with strong interface barrier effect. Ceramics International, 2018, 44: S50–S53

[87] Carr J M, Mackey M, Flandin L, Schuele D, Zhu L, Baer E. Effect of biaxial orientation on dielectric and breakdown properties of poly (ethylene terephthalate)/poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-tetrafluoroethylene) multilayer films. Journal of Polymer Science. Part B, Polymer Physics, 2013, 51(11): 882–896

[88] Wang Y, Hou Y, Deng Y. Effects of interfaces between adjacent layers on breakdown strength and energy density in sandwich-structured polymer composites. Composites Science and Technology, 2017, 145: 71–77

[89] Jiang J, Shen Z, Qian J, Dan Z, Guo M, Lin Y, Nan C, Chen L, Shen Y. Ultrahigh discharge efficiency in multilayered polymer nanocomposites of high energy density. Energy Storage Materials, 2019, 18: 213–221

[90] Zhu Y, Zhu Y, Huang X, Chen J, Li Q, He J, Jiang P. High energy density polymer dielectrics interlayered by assembled boron nitride nanosheets. Advanced Energy Materials, 2019, 9(36): 1901826

[91] Yin K, Zhang J, Li Z, Feng J, Zhang C, Chen X, Olah A, Schuele D E, Zhu L, Baer E. Polymer multilayer films for high temperature capacitor application. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2019, 136(20): 47535

[92] Pei J Y, Zha J W, Zhou W Y, Wang S, Zhong S, Yin L, Zheng M, Cai H, Dang Z. Enhancement of breakdown strength of multilayer polymer film through electric field redistribution and defect modification. Applied Physics Letters, 2019, 114(10): 103702

[93] Zebouchi N, Bendaoud M, Essolbi R, Malec D, Ai B, Giam H. Electrical breakdown theories applied to polyethylene terephthalate films under the combined effects of pressure and temperature. Journal of Applied Physics, 1996, 79(5): 2497–2501

[94] Ho J, Jow T R. High field conduction in biaxially oriented polypropylene at elevated temperature. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 2012, 19(3): 990–995

[95] Chen S, Meng G, Kong B, Xiao B, Wang Z, Jing Z, Gao Y, Wu G, Wang H, Cheng Y. Asymmetric alicyclic amine-polyether amine molecular chain structure for improved energy storage density of high-temperature crosslinked polymer capacitor. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 387: 123662

[96] Guan F, Yang L, Wang J, Guan B, Han K, Wang Q, Zhu L. Confined ferroelectric properties in poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene)-graft-polystyrene graft copolymers for electric energy storage applications. Advanced Functional Materials, 2011, 21(16): 3176–3188

[97] Guan F, Wang J, Yang L, Tseng J, Han K, Wang Q, Zhu L. Confinement-induced high-field antiferroelectric-like behavior in poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene)-graft-polystyrene graft copolymer. Macromolecules, 2011, 44(7): 2190–2199

[98] Guan F, Yuan Z, Shu E W, Zhu L. Fast discharge speed in poly (vinylidene fluoride) graft copolymer dielectric films achieved by confined ferroelectricity. Applied Physics Letters, 2009, 94(5): 052907

[99] Tan K M, Ramachandaramurthy V K, Yong J Y. Integration of electric vehicles in smart grid: A review on vehicle to grid technologies and optimization techniques. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 53: 720–732

[100] Zhang N Y, Ho J, Runt J, Zhang S H. Light weight high temperature polymer film capacitors with dielectric loss lower than polypropylene. Journal of Materials Science Materials in Electronics, 2015, 26(12): 9396–9401

[101] Joshi M, Jauhari S, Desai K R. Polyureas: Synthesis and characterization. International Journal of Chem-Tech Research CODEN (USA), 2011, 3(1): 29–32

[102] Cheng Z, Lin M, Wu S, Thakur Y, Zhou Y, Jeong D, Shen Q, Zhang Q. Aromatic poly(arylene ether urea) with high dipole moment for high thermal stability and high energy density capacitors. Applied Physics Letters, 2015, 106(20): 202902

[103] Li Q, Chen L, Gadinski M R, Zhang S, Zhang G, Li H, Lagodkine E, Haque A, Chen L, Jackson T, Wang Q. Flexible high-temperature dielectric materials from polymer nanocomposites. Nature, 2015, 523(7562): 576–579

[104] Dang Z M, Lin Y Q, Xu H P, Shi C Y, Li S T, Bai J. Fabrication and dielectric characterization of advanced BaTiO₃/polyimide nanocomposite films with high thermal stability. Advanced Functional Materials, 2008, 18(10): 1509–1517

[105] Dang Z M, Zhou T, Yao S H, Yuan J K, Zha J W, Song H T, Li J Y, Chen Q, Yang W T, Bai J. Advanced calcium copper titanate/polyimide functional hybrid films with high dielectric permittivity. Advanced Materials, 2009, 21(20): 2077–2082

[106] Wang L, Li J, Wang D, Wang D, Li H. Preparation and properties of core-shell silver/polyimide nanocomposites. Polymer Bulletin, 2014, 71(10): 2661–2670

[107] Beier C W, Sanders J M, Brutchey R L. Improved breakdown strength and energy density in thin-film polyimide nanocomposites with small barium strontium titanate nanocrystal fillers. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2013, 117(14): 6958–6965

[108] Wang M, Li W L, Feng Y, Hou Y, Zhang T D, Fei W D, Yin J H. Effect of BaTiO₃ nanowires on dielectric properties and energy storage density of polyimide composite films. Ceramics International, 2015, 41(10): 13582–13588

[109] Azizi A, Gadinski M R, Li Q, Alsaud M, Wang J, Wang Y, Wang B, Liu F, Chen L, Alem N, Wang Q. High-performance polymers sandwiched with chemical vapor deposited hexagonal boron nitrides as scalable high-temperature dielectric materials. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(35): 1701864

[110] Zhao G, Deng W, Xia H, Zhang M. Research on common aperture optical device for high energy laser system. In: 14th National Conference on Laser Technology and Optoelectronics (LTO 2019). Bellingham: International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2019, 11170: 111701O

[111] Jow T R, MacDougall F W, Ennis J B, Yang X H, Schneider M A, Scozzie C J, White J D, MacDonald J R, Schalnat M C, Cooper R A, Pulsed power capacitor development and outlook. In: IEEE Pulsed Power Conference (PPC). New York: IEEE, 2015, 1–7

[112] Lynn C, Neuber A, Matthews E, Walter J, Kristiansen M. A low impedance 500 kV 2.7 kJ Marx generator as testbed for vacuum diodes. In: IEEE International Power Modulator and High Voltage Conference. New York: IEEE, 2010, 417–420

[113] Chu B, Zhou X, Ren K, Neese B, Lin M, Wang Q, Bauer F, Zhang M. A dielectric polymer with high electric energy density and fast discharge speed. Science, 2006, 313(5785): 334–336

[114] Mao J, Wang S, Cheng Y, Wu J. Influence of pulse front steepness on vacuum flashover characteristics. Applied Surface Science, 2018, 448: 261–269

[115] Stephanovich V A, Luk’yanchuk I A, Karkut M G. Domain-enhanced interlayer coupling in ferroelectric/paraelectric superlattices. Physical Review Letters, 2005, 94(4): 047601

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. LQ18E030004), State Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Power Equipment (Grant No. EIPE19204) and Zhejiang Top Priority Discipline of Textile Science and Engineering/Material Science and Engineering (Grant No. 2019YBZX03).

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2020 Higher Education Press