Integrated innovation and application of green high-yield and high-efficiency technologies of rice in China

Abstract

China’s high rice yield is primarily achieved through intensive fertilizer application and substantial water resource consumption, which has resulted in significant environmental risks. There is an urgent need to develop innovative green technologies that simultaneously ensure high yield and production efficiency to achievesustainable rice production. This paper systematically analyzes both nationwide challenges and region-specific constraints affecting rice production. The proposed solutions focus on three key innovations: constructing high-yield populations, coupling aboveground and belowground, and improving soil fertility. Implementation of these green high-yield and high-efficiency technologies demonstrates potential to maintain or increase yields while achieving three critical improvements: enhanced nitrogen use efficiency, reduced irrigation water consumption and decreased greenhouse gas emissions. To facilitate large-scale adoption, priority should be given to developing rice-related products, integrating rice-upland rotating system and establishing localized implementation models based on these technological innovations.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Rice / yield / nitrogen use efficiency / soil fertility / sustainable production

Highlight

	● Excessive fertilizer application and inefficient water management limit rice productivity and sustainability in China.
	● Optimize nutrient management and crop production methods based on nutritional and physiological basis of rice yield formation.
	● Innovative products and technologies improve rice water and fertilizer use efficiency and promote green rice production.
	● Ideas for green and sustainable development of rice in China are proposed.

1 Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa) is pivotal for global food security, providing sustenance for over half of China’s population^[1]. However, rice production needs to increase annually by 1% to meet the growing demands^[2]. Over the past 50 years, several rice breeding programs have been conducted to improve rice yield potential. It is well documented that the newly bred hybrid rice cultivars demonstrate a 9%–20% yield gain compared to inbred rice cultivars^[3,^4]. The optimization of genetic variations, along with improved agronomic management and increased input of agricultural chemicals, have been crucial for enhancing rice yield^[5]. Nitrogen fertilizer input is a key factor in rice production, determining biomass accumulation^[6]. Meanwhile, rice production accounts for 16% of global N fertilizer consumption^[7], resulting in overuse and declining nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)^[8]. China accounts for about 20% of global rice production area but uses 37% of global N fertilizer for rice production^[9], highlighting that yield increases depend heavily on N application. Although China’s rice yield per unit area exceeds the global average^[10], its partial factor productivity of N is below the average for all continents^[11]. Excessive N use has emerged as a critical issue. Nitrogen exists in various forms within soil and is lost through runoff, leaching, volatilization and denitrification^[12]. Therefore, excessive N application can lead to soil degradation as well as air and water pollution. Rice production accounts for about 48% of farmland greenhouse gases, with Chinese paddies releasing 712 Mt CO₂ eqv, higher than other major rice-producing countries^[13]. The N application rate is considered as the primary driver of N₂O emission, as excessive N accelerates nitrification and denitrification while lowering soil pH^[14,^15]. Urgent innovation in rice production is needed to address these challenges.

Crop yield depends on biomass and harvest index at maturity, with increasing biomass being regarded as an important strategy to enhance yield^[16]. Biomass accumulation relies on radiation interception by the canopy and radiation use efficiency (RUE)^[17]. Optimizing photosynthesis is considered as a key strategy to improve RUE^[18]. Most N in plants accumulates in leaves, with about 75% allocated to the photosynthetic apparatus^[19,^20]. A strong positive correlation exists between leaf photosynthetic rate and N content^[21,^22]. Photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency, defined as the ratio of leaf photosynthetic rate to N content^[20], demonstrates a significant positive correlation with nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUtE)^[23,^24]. NUE is determined by both N uptake efficiency and NUtE^[25]. Optimizing NUtE through rational N fertilizer application contributes to maximizing crop productivity while reducing fertilizer inputs^[26,^27]. This approach provides a theoretical foundation for achieving high-yield and high-efficiency rice production.

From 2005 to 2015, the application of green high-yield and high-efficiency technologies, based on locally applicable recommendations developed through large-scale field trials, increased average yields of maize, rice and wheat by 10.8%– 11.5%^[28]. Additionally, N application of these crops decreased by 14.7%–18.1%, leading to a reduction of calculated reactive N losses by 22.9%–34.9% and a decline in greenhouse gas emissions by 18.6%–29.1%. These results demonstrate that green high-yield and high-efficiency technologies can achieve both crop yield increases and large-scale environmental emission reductions. However, due to the vast geographic distribution of rice-growing regions in China, significant variation exists in soil nutrient status and climatic conditions (e.g., temperature, rainfall and solar radiation). Therefore, region-specific adaptation of these technologies is essential to align with local rice production contexts. Translating such technologies into practical solutions for farmers remains a challenge in agricultural production. To address this, Science and Technology Backyard programs have been established to foster collaboration among government agencies, agricultural enterprises, universities and farmers, bridging the gap between research innovations and on-field implementation^[29,^30]. In the 2010s, policy-driven initiatives, such as crop straw return and organic fertilizer application, improved China’s soil fertility, with indicators like soil organic matter and available potassium showing significant increases^[31–^33]. Thus, the synergy of scientific techniques, farmer engagement and policy incentives are critical to unlocking the full potential of green high-yield and high-efficiency rice production in China.

Leveraging the research findings from nationwide rice science and technology backyard, this study first systematically analyzes the key constraints and regional disparities in rice production across China. From this analysis, we propose innovative strategies for enhancing green production efficiency, with a focus on the physiologic and nutritional mechanisms underlying rice yield formation, paddy soil fertility dynamics and optimized crop production practices. We then quantitatively evaluate the impacts of core technologies on yield improvement and resource use efficiency. Finally, we establish an implementation framework integrating model development, localized adaptation and scalable dissemination of green high-efficiency production systems.

2 Key issues and limiting factors of regional production

China has five major rice production regions, including the single and double cropping rice regions in South China, the single and double cropping rice regions in the Yangtze River Basin, the single cropping rice region in the mountainous areas of Southwest China, the early maturing single cropping rice region in Northeast China, and the single cropping rice region in the dry areas of Northwest China. Based on the practical conditions of rice production in China’s five major producing regions, the critical constraints on rice production in China demonstrate characteristics of both national universality and regional specificity.

2.1 Nationwide common problems

2.1.1 Suboptimal seedling management

Seedling quality critically determines rice yield and quality, with age-appropriate seedlings being pivotal for mechanized transplanting success. However, prevalent issues such as improper seeding rates, low-quality substrates and unscientific farmer practices frequently result in overaged seedlings, poor vigor and suboptimal population establishment. These deficiencies directly compromise yield potential and resource use efficiency^[34–^37].

2.1.2 Inefficient water management

While traditional flooding practices enhance initial nutrient availability, persistent waterlogging reduces soil redox potential, promotes accumulation of phytotoxic reductants (Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺, sulfides), and causes rhizosphere oxygen deprivation, collectively suppressing root metabolic activity and plant growth. Labor shortages and irrigation inefficiencies exacerbate these issues, limiting the adoption of dry-wet alternation strategies that enhance soil aeration and root development^[38,^39].

2.1.3 Limited dissemination of elite cultivars

Since the 1950s, about 3000 rice cultivars with an annual planting area of over 6.67 kha have been released in China, comprising about 80% inbred cultivars and 20% hybrid cultivars^[40,^41]. Although previous studies have reported that hybrid rice cultivars exhibit about 10% higher average grain yield compared to inbred cultivars, the production area of hybrid rice in China has shown a consistent decline in recent years^[42]. Also, while the number of officially registered rice cultivars in China continues to increase rapidly, the number and area of major cultivars and dominant cultivars in China have decreased significantly, resulting in decreased concentration of rice cultivars^[43].

2.1.4 Inefficient planting density

Planting density critically influences high-yield population establishment, photosynthetic efficiency and tillering regulation in rice^[44–^46]. In China, inappropriate sowing density remains prevalent in rice production, with excessive density causing poor canopy ventilation and light penetration, impaired ontogenesis and reduced RUE^[47]. Conversely, low density promotes excessive individual plant growth^[48], limiting effective panicles per unit area and hindering yield potential. Also, certain agricultural machinery designs have failed to adequately accommodate the production requirements across diverse rice production regions. For example, the row spacing and hill distance settings of rice transplanters often mismatch the optimal spacing parameters for local rice cultivars, resulting in poor population quality after transplantation. Compared to manually transplanted rice, mechanically transplanted fields frequently exhibit reduced panicle size^[49].

2.1.5 Excessive fertilizer application

Despite the promotion of soil testing and formulated fertilizer application, excessive and unbalanced fertilizer application remains widespread. Many farmers apply excessive mineral fertilizers, aiming for high yields at the expense of NUE^[50,^51]. Excessive application of nitrogen and phosphorus leads to environmental degradation, including nutrient runoff, groundwater pollution and greenhouse gas emissions^[52–^54].

2.2 Regional-specific problems

2.2.1 Early-maturing single cropping region of Northeast China

The early-maturing single cropping rice zone in Northeast China frequently experiences low temperatures during the early growing season, which delays seedling greening and impairs tillering, ultimately reducing yield^[55–^57]. Also, intensive land reclamation in black soil areas has led to increased soil bulk density, reduced porosity, and decreased water retention, negatively affecting soil fertility and structure^[58–^61].

2.2.2 Single and double cropping region of the Yangtze River Basin

As China’s largest rice-producing area, the Yangtze River Basin is vital for food security^[62]. However, intensive tillage, shallow soil profiles and low organic matter restrict root development and yield potential^[63]. Long-term flooding and excessive fertilizer application result in severe nitrogen and phosphorus runoff^[52,⁶⁴,^65]. Simultaneously, light-temperature mismatch during key growth stages limits yield potential^[66,^67].

2.2.3 Double cropping region of South China

In the double cropping rice areas of South China, the abundance of water and heat resources supports intensive production. Nevertheless, excessive input of water and fertilizers has led to significant agricultural non-point source pollution and elevated greenhouse gas emissions^[68].

2.2.4 Mountainous single cropping region of Southwest China

The complex terrain severely limits the application of standard farming machinery, making large-scale equipment unsuitable for steep, fragmented plots and resulting in low operational efficiency. Simultaneously, the region is frequently exposed to high temperatures during critical growth stages, particularly the grain-filling phase, where inconsistent thermal regimes directly impair yield potential^[66].

2.2.5 Arid single cropping region of Northwest China

Rice production in the arid of Northwest China is constrained by limited water availability, high soil salinity and low accumulated temperatures^[69]. These conditions hinder rice growth and limit yield stability. Also, flood irrigation, essential due to water scarcity, results in high nitrogen leaching and reduced NUE^[53,^54].

3 Innovative ideas of green production increase and efficiency technology

3.1 Nutritional and physiologic principles of rice yield formation

Excessive N fertilizer application, particularly during early growth stages, is a common practice in Chinese rice production, leading to an imbalance between N supply and crop demand^[9,^70]. Addressing this challenge requires integrating rice growth patterns with nutrient requirement dynamics (Fig.1). Rice yield is determined by four components: panicle number per unit area, spikelets per panicle, 1000-grain weight and filled grain rate. Of these yield components, panicle density (panicles per unit area) has been identified as the primary yield-limiting factor^[71]. Panicle density correlates positively with tiller formation during early growth stages, which is strongly influenced by N availability^[72,^73]. Consequently, N application at the tillering stage effectively promotes tiller development. However, excessive tillering may reduce yield through non-productive tiller abortion, decreased spikelet formation, and impaired grain filling^[74]. Also, a negative correlation between spikelets per panicle and panicle density^[75]. The plant N content during late spikelet differentiation critically regulates spikelet number per panicle^[76]. Optimizing the distribution of N fertilizer application at different growth stages, by reducing base and tiller fertilizers while increasing N supply at the panicle initiation stage, contributes to balance spikelets per panicle and panicle density, thereby maximizing the number of spikelets per unit area.

Maintaining optimal photosynthetic rates represents a key determinant of high rice yields. Previous studies demonstrate that photosynthetic rate is regulated by leaf N content^[77–^79], with a demonstrated positive correlation observed between photosynthetic capacity and grain yield^[80]. However, when N application exceeds critical thresholds, both leaf photosynthetic rate and rice yield cease to increase^[81]. Under low N supply, plants promote the allocation of leaf N to photosynthetic processes^[82], suggesting that moderate N supply can optimize N partitioning to sustain photosynthetic efficiency. The grain filling stage constitutes the critical phase for yield formation, requiring adequate nutrient supply to maintain photosynthesis and ensure assimilate transport from source to sink^[83,^84]. Therefore, increasing the application ratio of N fertilizer during grain filling improves synchronization between N supply and crop demand. Organic-mineral substitution emerges as an effective strategy to sustain rice N requirements^[85]. An earlier study demonstrated that this approach enhances grain filling rates by prolonging source activity duration and balancing source-sink relationships^[86].

3.2 Improvement of paddy soil fertility

Soil fertility refers to the capacity of a soil to sustain crop nutrient supply, which can be enhanced through appropriate agricultural practices including tillage, irrigation management and fertilizer application^[14,⁸⁷,^88]. Conversely, inappropriate agricultural practices, such as excessive N application, imbalanced fertilizer application without organic fertilizer addition and post-harvest straw removal, accelerate land degradation while reducing agricultural productivity^[89,^90]. Across cropping systems, grain yield exhibits a positive correlation with integrated fertility quality index (IFQI), and IFQI improvement contributes to yield stability^[91,^92]. Typically, grain yield is positively correlated with the IFQI in various cropping systems. Also, improving the IFQI helps enhance crop yield stability^[91]. Among different fertilizer treatments, organic amendments (e.g., farmyard manure or crop straw) demonstrate superior IFQI enhancement compared to mineral-only fertilizer application. Long-term organic fertilization significantly increases soil organic carbon (SOC) and total N while improving P and K availability^[91]. SOC is pivotal for soil productivity, regulating soil physical properties and mitigating acidification rates^[93]. Also, SOC accumulation enhances nutrient availability and reduces yield variability in agroecosystems^[94].

Organic fertilizer application not only modifies soil physicochemical properties but also modulates microbial community dynamics^[95]. Soil microbial communities are vital for soil organic matter accumulation and mineralization, while regulating enzyme activities, microbial biomass and community composition^[96]. Also, these communities govern nutrient use efficiencies and mediate ecosystem resource equilibria^[97]. Integrated organic-mineral fertilizer application stimulates microbial activity, enhancing organic matter decomposition and nutrient transformation^[98,^99], thereby improving soil fertility and stabilizing agricultural productivity.

Ammonia volatilization is an important pathway for N loss, with a loss rate of 17.2%^[100]. Ammonia released into the atmosphere can easily be converted into nitrous pentoxide, nitrates and other nitrous oxides, which can polymerize to form aerosols and PM_2.5 particles, thereby polluting the atmospheric environment^[101]. Additionally, N₂O, a potential greenhouse gas, has a warming potential 265 times greater than that of CO₂^[102]. Therefore, it is necessary to explore reasonable fertilizer application practices in order to reduce NH₄ and N₂O emissions and contribute to the development of green agriculture. In the initial stage of rice growth, short plant stature combined with excessive basal N application limits nutrient uptake efficiency. Concurrently, elevated field temperatures under solar radiation accelerate urea hydrolysis via enhanced soil urease activity, promoting NH₄⁺-N accumulation and subsequent volatilization^[103]. Previous studies have demonstrated that the combined application of organic and mineral fertilizers can mitigate NH₃ emissions^[104,^105]. Therefore, reducing the supply of N fertilizer during the early growth stage of rice and substituting a portion with organic fertilizer can effectively mitigate N loss and greenhouse gas emissions, while simultaneously enhancing soil fertility. This approach represents a crucial technology for attaining environmentally sustainable and high-yield rice production.

3.3 Optimizing production management

Increasing N fertilizer input is considered as an important means of improving rice population productivity, but the effect of changes in planting density is often ignored. High N supply increases population productivity mainly by increasing tiller number, but it also leads to delayed maturation, ineffective tillering, plant lodging and reduced grain filling rates^[106,^107]. Earlier studies have shown that optimal increases in planting density can enhance biomass accumulation and leaf area index, thereby improving N absorption during the vegetative growth period^[81,^108]. Therefore, aligning planting density with N application rates enhances rice yield. Studies in Jiangsu Province demonstrate that adding about 1000 hills ha^–1 reduces N requirement by 1 kg·ha^–1[81]. Under current production conditions, combining increased planting density with reduced N input achieves higher yields alongside enhanced NUE.

In addition to improving aboveground production management, deep tillage implementation is recommended. Deep tillage breaks up soil compaction layers and increases topsoil volume, while more critically enhancing soil porosity, water retention capacity, aeration efficiency and root system development^[109–^111]. Innovative techniques, such as side deep fertilizer placement, are increasingly adopted in rice production. This technique involves strip-application of fertilizer at 3–5 cm depth adjacent to seedlings (5–8 cm lateral distance), ensuring precise nutrient delivery to the root zone^[112]. By concentrating fertilizers near roots, side deep fertilizer placement boosts nutrient absorption efficiency while reducing aquatic pollution from runoff^[113,^114]. Compared to standard fertilizer application methods, side deep fertilizer placement increases the nutrient concentration in the roots to meet the needs of rice growth. Machine-transplanted rice trials demonstrate that side deep fertilizer placement enhances photosynthetic rate, dry matter accumulation and grain yield^[115]. From the perspective of nutrient balance, side deep fertilizer placement suppresses urease activity, enhances mineral N content in the deep soil layer, thereby reducing leaching losses^[116]. Also, side deep fertilizer placement has the potential to modulate the composition and abundance of soil microorganisms, thereby enhancing soil fertility and providing a suitable growth environment for rice.

In China, more than 95% of rice is produced under irrigated conditions, with around 70% of agricultural irrigation water used for rice production^[117,^118]. Based on the fact that continuous flooding is not necessary for rice to achieve high yields, alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation technology has been widely adopted in rice production^[119,^120]. In the AWD irrigation regime, once the transplanted seedlings are well established, the field water depth is allowed to fall to a threshold depth below the soil surface for a certain period before the next irrigation is applied^[121]. Under continuous flooding conditions, paddies emit vast amounts of CH₄^[122]. Therefore, the adoption of AWD technology conserves water while simultaneously mitigating greenhouse gas emissions^[123].

4 Effects of green production increase and efficiency technology

Key technologies for optimized fertilizer application and crop production management are applied to address production constraints in different rice production regions based on their specific limiting factors. In South China, heavy rainfall and severe runoff lead to poor water and fertilizer retention in soils, while improper irrigation practices cause accumulation of soil reducing substances and premature aging of rice roots, contributing to plant lodging. During the tillering stage, the peak period for CH₄ emissions and nitrogen loss, water-saving and emission-reduction irrigation control technology has been implemented. Compared with the AWD irrigation method developed by the International Rice Research Institute, the modified AWD irrigation technology demonstrates comparable or slightly increased rice yields while achieving 19.0% reduction in irrigation water consumption, 16.2% decrease in CH₄ emissions, and 13.9% reduction in global warming potential^[123,^124]. In Northeast China, where low temperatures during early growth stages delay rice greening, the application of N-Zn co-application technology has proven effective. This approach combines ammonium nitrogen with urea nitrogen while supplementing Zn fertilizer during early growth phases, enhancing stress resistance and accelerating greening and growth processes^[124]. The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, as China’s primary rice-producing region, are impacted distinct climate-related challenges. In drought-flood rotation areas, tight crop schedules create production pressures. For double-cropping rice systems, suboptimal allocation of light and thermal resources between early and late rice cultivars remain problematic. In mixed single/double-cropping areas, single-crop systems underutilize available light and thermal resources while double-cropping systems experience scheduling stress. Recommended solutions include cultivating climate-adapted cultivars and adjusting sowing dates according to growth cycles.

Meanwhile, the present and earlier studies demonstrate that optimized nutrient management and production patterns can significantly enhance rice productivity. In Jiangsu Province, combining optimal nutrient management with organic-mineral fertilizer integration increased yields by 6.3% compared to standard farming practices^[125]. Side deep fertilizer placement techniques have shown particular promise, boosting yields by about 10% while improving N agronomic efficiency by 8.1%–21.3%^[126]. In the rice-growing areas of Northeast China, combining optimized nutrient management with increased planting density can achieve a yield increase of 9.8%^[127]. In the rice-growing areas of South China, low-carbon and high-yield crop production can achieve a yield increase of 11.0%^[128]. In the arid regions of Northwest China, optimizing irrigation and N fertilizer management strategies can achieve the maximum yield in areas with scarce water resources and limited soil N content^[129]. In the rice-growing areas of Southwest China, combining optimized nutrient management with increased planting density can achieve a yield increase of 15.7%^[130].

5 Regional green production and efficiency model integration

To ensure national food security, we propose integrating a national model to enhance rice yield and production efficiency, aiming to address key challenges in rice production while achieving sustainable improvements in productivity and resource utilization (Fig.2). Firstly, the core issue stems from the inherent contradiction in seasonal resource allocation, where the synchronization of light, temperature, water and other critical resources required at successive rice growth stages cannot be fully optimized. This mismatch significantly impedes rice growth and development^[55,^131]. Secondly, China’s major rice-producing regions have substantial geographical diversity, with variations in cultivated land quality and limited water-fertilizer retention capacity in specific areas. These constraints reduce the ability of soil to consistently supply adequate nutrients for rice production^[132]. Thirdly, the occurrence of extreme climatic events in recent years, such as floods and droughts, has led to unstable water resource availability, exacerbating reliance on traditional irrigation and fertilizer application practices. This results in low efficiency in water and fertilizer use^[133]. Finally, rice production management technologies remain outdated, lacking scientific and standardized operational procedures.

To address these challenges, we propose three fundamental technologies and corresponding strategies: (1) the integration of high-yield rice populations with highly efficient root systems, (2) optimization of water management and fertilizer application practices, and (3) enhancement of soil fertility through carbon sequestration and nitrogen conservation. Specific practices include straw crushing and incorporation into the field, substituting organic fertilizers for part of the mineral fertilizers, increasing soil organic matter content, improving soil structure and enhancing the ability of soil to retain water and nutrients, all of which contribute to increased crop yields^[134–^136]. Suitable cultivars will be selected based on the climatic conditions of each production region, with optimal sowing and transplanting times determined to maximize the use of light and temperature resources, thereby enhancing photosynthetic efficiency. Planting density will be optimized by scientifically determining plant and row spacing, and the application of N fertilizer will be precisely regulated to achieve optimal synergy. Fertilizer application strategies will be enhanced through biofortification and the development of a comprehensive nutrient management program, which incorporates multiple elements. Additionally, the use of biological fertilizers and microbial activity will help optimize nutrient release and transformation, thereby improving rice nutrient uptake efficiency. Irrigation strategies will be based on the specific water requirements at different growth stages of rice. This includes maintaining shallow water levels during early tillering to promote tiller development, reducing irrigation during late tillering when tiller formation becomes ineffective, retaining water during the booting and earing stages, and implementing alternating dry and wet conditions during the late filling stage to enhance root vitality and improve rice quality^[137].

Concurrent emphasis on new product development and technical standardization is critical. We advocate for integrated water-fertilizer infrastructure to achieve irrigation-fertilizer application synergy, enabling precise resource delivery aligned with rice growth requirements. Strengthened fertilizer management systems should include stage-specific applications of base fertilizers, formulated fertilizers and foliar fertilizers to ensure continuous nutrient supply throughout the growth cycle.

6 Regional technology application model innovation

To improve the application efficacy of green, high-yield and high-efficiency technologies in diverse rice-growing regions and advance the sustainable development of the rice industry, it is essential to develop region-specific annual green, high-yield and high-efficiency technological models for rice production. These models integrate a systematic framework that bridges foundational research with practical applications (Fig.3).

Firstly, field experiments are conducted across multiple rice production regions to analyze the nutrient requirements of rice at different growth stages. Concurrently, the soil nutrient supply mechanisms are investigated, focusing on the role of microorganisms in nutrient transformation, thereby establishing a theoretical foundation for subsequent technological innovations. For example, functional microorganisms are used to improve soil structure and enhance soil fertility^[133]. Building upon this theoretical framework, annual green, high-yield and high-efficiency production technologies are developed to address seasonal challenges: improving soil fertility during the dry season, reducing nutrient loss in the rainy season and optimizing crop nutrient and water use efficiency.

Secondly, novel products are designed to align with technological innovations and maximize the efficacy of high-yield technologies. For example, a highly efficient foliar fertilizer is developed to rapidly replenish nutrients during critical growth phases, addressing the accelerated developmental demands of crops^[138]. A specialized slow-release fertilizer for rice is formulated to synchronize nutrient release with growth requirements, minimizing fertilizer waste and improving utilization rates^[139]. Also, a bio-organic-mineral compound fertilizer is created by integrating the advantages of organic and mineral fertilizers, ensuring sustained nutrient supply while meeting short-term needs.

Finally, diverse technologies and products are integrated into a comprehensive system model. Supportive products and standardized technologies are established for rotation or intercropping systems (e.g., rice–wheat, rice–rape and rice–vegetables). In rotational systems, soil improvement, precision fertilizer placement and sustainable pest control technologies are combined to address the varying growth requirements of dual crops, achieving efficient resource utilization and recycling.

To facilitate the practical application of the optimized technical model, we propose leveraging the Science and Technology Backyard platform. This initiative connects governments, enterprises, academic institutions, communities and farmers, establishing an integrated government-industry-education-research service platform to promote the adoption and dissemination of green production and efficiency technologies.

7 Conclusions

The application of green high-yield and high-efficiency technology across various experimental sites contributes to the enhancement of rice yield, reduction in fertilizer and water usage, and mitigation greenhouse gas emissions. The current state of rice production in China is affected by issues related to inadequate nutrient management and other crop production practices. Therefore, it is recommended to enhance cooperation among government, researchers and farmers by leveraging the Science and Technology Backyard platform to facilitate the large-scale adoption of green high-yield and high-efficiency technologies aimed at increasing rice yield, reducing resource consumption and achieving sustainable production.

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