Evaluation and application of sustainable yield and efficiency increasing models in the main maize producing areas of China

Abstract

Maize is a critical grain crop in China, having the largest planting area and highest total yield of all grain crops. In the four-primary maize-producing regions of China (Northeast, North China Plain, Northwest and Southwest), persistent regional production challenges and yield-limiting factors have impeded the realization of efficient maize production. This paper reviews sustainable, yield-enhancing and efficiency-improving practices for maize production in China. By addressing the regional constraints in major maize-producing areas and incorporating strategies, such as high-yield population construction, the establishment of appropriate tillage layers and soil fertility enhancement through precise matching technologies, this study integrates regionalized integrated fertilizer application and a government-enterprise-university-research-application collaborative model, focusing on the Science and Technology Backyards. The goal is to facilitate sustainable, efficient, scaled and modernized development across diverse maize-growing regions in China. This approach is expected to provide a foundation for sustainable and efficient maize production in China.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Maize / agriculture green development / technical innovations / yield-limiting factor s

Highlight

	● Address limiting factors in corn production across China’s regions with tailored planning measures.
	● Establish suitable corn planting systems based on climate, soil, and planting density in each region.
	● Develop sustainable yield and efficiency models for maize, centered on soil-crop system management.
	● Promote high-yield, sustainable corn technologies via the “Government-Enterprise-University-Research-Application” model.

1 Introduction

Maize is a crucial grain crop in China^[1,^2], leading in both planted area and total production of the major grain crops, and ranking second globally in maize production, behind only the USA^[3]. By 2022, the maize planting area in China has reached 43.1 Mha, being a 4.29% increase over the past decade, indicating a stable growth trend. With the increase in planting area, maize production in China also increased^[4], rising to 277 Mt in 2022, an increase of 11.6% over the same period^[5]. Despite this growth in total maize production, enhancing yield per unit area remains a significant challenge^[6], at present average unit area yield of maize in China is only 6.50 t·ha^‒1, there is still a great potential for increasing yield. Also, in the increasingly tense situation of arable land resources, expanding the grain area is no longer a viable option, the focus must shift to improving yields^[7,^8]. Therefore, realizing high maize yield is the basis for ensuring food security in China and an ongoing challenge for agriculture globally.

Maize production in China can be categorized into four principal production regions based on the topography, climate and vegetation, as well as the regional distribution of maize production, namely, spring maize production region of Northeast China, summer maize production region of the North China Plain, spring maize production region of Northwest China and maize production region of Southwest China, which in combination cover about 98% of the total maize planting area in China, with the planting area in these regions being 38%, 30%, 12% and 18%, respectively. The average yield is the highest in Northeast China (9.53 t·ha^‒1), followed by Southwest China (9.48 t·ha^‒1), North China Plain (7.50 t·ha^‒1) and Northwest China (6.49 t·ha^‒1)^[9]. However, the impact of climate change on maize production cannot be ignored^[10]. These four main maize production regions in China possess natural conditions that are conducive to high yields. For example, Northwest and Northeast China have significant diurnal temperature variation and ample sunlight. Higher solar radiation enhances dry matter accumulation^[11,^12], supports and prolongs grain fill^[13]. Additionally, plants with higher stalk strength are less prone to lodging^[14], which is conducive to higher maize yields. Southwest China and the North China Plain have higher temperatures and precipitation, and rain and heat coincide with each other, so maize growth matches light and temperature, which is an important for achieving high yields; regions with higher light radiation can afford larger maize populations, which facilitates higher planting densities and thus higher maize yields^[15]. Additionally, higher diurnal temperature difference reduces nighttime respiratory consumption of maize, which improves yields^[16,^17]. Similarly, the specific climatic and soil conditions of the four regions differ, leading to variations in maize production. Low precipitation in the Northwest and Northeast may result in insufficient moisture availability during the maize growth period, and high temperatures on the North China Plain and in Southwest China, where evaporation can be too high, limit yields. There is potential for yield improvement within each region by developing region-specific production strategies designed for local conditions. The key to enhance maize production in China is requiring a strategic approach that considers these regional differences.

Over the last few decades, agricultural productivity has greatly enhanced, and food production has increased significantly; however, it has also led to a series of problems such as increasing ecological degradation^[18,^19] and decreasing quality of high-yielding crops^[20]. Consequently, future research on high maize yields in China should adopt problem-and goal-oriented approaches, specifically targeting the coordinated development of yield improvement, farmer income enhancement and sustainable yield increase in the main maize production regions^[21]. Therefore, it is important to start by determining the climate, soil and other natural conditions of each ecological zone in China and then develop region-specific planting strategies. This is especially important in the context of dual priorities of food security and agricultural green development. Therefore, this studied evaluated scientific basis and application of regional models for integration of sustainable efficiencies and yield increase in the main maize production regions of China. This is of great potential significance in the identification of problems preventing high maize yield. By in-depth analysis of these problems, a scientific basis for formulating effective agricultural policies and promoting agricultural green development can be established.

2 Key issues and limiting factors in regional maize production in China

Maize is a C₄ crop originating from the tropics and is best suited to warm and moist growth conditions^[22]. However, China is a vast country with complex and diverse climates, a wide range of latitudes, and a large gap between the distance from the ocean, coupled with different terrain elevations and a variety of terrain types and mountain ranges, resulting in a variety of combinations of temperature and precipitation. The mean annual precipitation in each production region of China ranges from 104 to 1240 mm, and the mean annual temperature ranges from 4.1 to 24.2 °C. The highest mean annual precipitation and temperature are in Southwest China, with 1150 mm and 16 °C, followed by the summer maize production region of the North China Plain (697 mm and 12.6 °C). In these regions, rain and heat coincide, so maize growth matches light and temperature, but water stress may occur under particularly high temperature conditions. In contrast, the spring maize production region of Northeast China is characterized by a relatively low temperature but with mean annual of only 290 mm (Tab.1) severe drought stress for maize is also possible.

Tab.1 details the physicochemical properties of soil tilled layer in the four maize main production regions of China. Black soil is typical of the spring maize production region of Northeast China, with high clay content and fertility. However, continuous cultivation and application of mineral fertilizers has led to the degradation of soil structure and acidification of the soils. The summer maize production region of the North China Plain mostly has brown soil with lower soil organic matter content; the spring maize production region of Northwest China has dark loessal soil with high sand content, loose soil texture, low fertility and alkaline; and the maize growing areas of Southwest China have purple soil with high fertility and weakly acidic soil.

In addition to adequate water and nutrient supply, determining an appropriate planting density is a crucial to optimizing maize yield per unit area^[23]. In China, the planting density is typically from 4.99 × 10⁴ to 6.52 × 10⁴ plants ha^–1[24,^25], which is considerably lower than the USA, the largest maize producer, where densities range from 8.22 × 10⁴ to 9.21 × 10⁴ plants ha^–1[26]. This disparity highlights the potential for improving maize planting density in China. Using a quadratic function, it is possible to conclude that the optimal planting density and the peak yield of maize kernel in the four main maize production regions of China varies substantially (Fig.1). Also, the optimal planting densities in the spring maize production region of Northeast China, summer maize production region of the North China Plain, spring maize production region of Northwest China and maize production region of Southwest China are respectively, 6.76 × 10⁴, 7.94 × 10⁴, 10.4 × 10⁴ and 5.43 × 10⁴ plants ha^–1, at which the peak yields of 11.8, 9.28, 14.8 and 7.84 t·ha^–1 could be achieved. Therefore, different regions should optimize planting patterns according to their own climatic and soil conditions.

3 Innovation of green technology for increasing maize production and efficiency in China

Achieving sustainable and efficient increase in maize yield, with soil-crop system integrated management as the core, mainly depends on the following aspects (Fig.2). (1) Increasing photosynthetic products is the foundation for improving yield. Photosynthesis is the entry point for carbon into the terrestrial biosphere, that is, he main pathway for plant carbon absorption. Therefore, any factor that affects the rate of photosynthesis and thus the production of photosynthates will inevitably affect the growth and yield of crops^[27]. In plant photosynthesis, ribulose-1,5-diphosphate carboxylase oxygenase is the key enzyme that fixes atmospheric CO₂^[28]. This affects the carboxylation efficiency of plant photorespiration, thereby affecting photosynthetic products and ultimately affecting yield. (2) Continuous supply of nutrients is crucial for increasing yield. For example, controlled-release urea-based nitrogen fertilizers have been proposed as an effective nutrient supply strategy^[29] to increase crop yield by synchronizing nitrogen supply and crop nitrogen demand^[30,^31]. This strategy is expected to reduce excessive nitrogen input and nitrogen loss to the environment in crop production systems^[32]. Studies have shown that using controlled-release fertilizers that can sustainably supply nutrients instead of urea can increase maize yield by 5.3%^[33]. (3) Synergistic improvement of yield and efficiency through canopy light nitrogen matching is also essential. The canopy is the fundamental unit of plant photosynthesis in natural ecosystems^[34]. Studies have shown that the development of canopy leaves directly affects light interception and photosynthesis^[35], with carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis accounting for 90% of crop biomass^[36]. Mineral nutrition, especially nitrogen, is crucial in improving crop light resource availability and photosynthetic rate^[37]. Nitrogen is an important component of chlorophyll molecules, and its deficiency limits the light energy capture efficiency of chlorophyll, thereby affecting photosynthesis^[38]. (4) Soil with higher organic matter can enhance material production capacity and yield. Soil is pivotal for in global carbon sequestration and climate change, as it contains more than twice as much carbon as vegetation and about twice as much carbon as the atmosphere^[39]. Most soil carbon exists in the form of organic matter, which is a continuum of organic compounds derived from plants and microorganisms. Its molecular size, decomposition state and binding state with soil mineral particles and aggregates vary. A higher soil organic matter content can promote plant nutrient absorption and serve as a source of activity for soil microorganisms. (5) The application of sustainable plant protection technology can effectively improve the yield of maize seedlings. The seedling stage is more tolerant to drought and afraid of waterlogging. A soil moisture content of 60% to 70% of field capacity is beneficial for root development. Seed treatment should be performed before sowing, such as sun drying and pesticide mixing, to improve germination and emergence rates. (6) Timely, moderately, centrally and efficiently supplying water and nutrients to the root zone of crops, meeting their water and fertilizer needs, and supporting the increase in maize yield is also important^[40]. (7) Crop rotation can effectively prevent and control common problems, such as stem rot, ear rot and maize borer. Conservation tillage includes autumn land consolidation, straw retention and deep cultivation operations to maintain soil moisture and reduce compaction, facilitating the development of crop roots^[41].

4 Key technological breakthroughs, indicators and considerations

4.1 High yield population construction technology

The design of maize populations is predicated on regional climate and soil conditions, which are variable in humidity and temperature across geographical areas. The performance of maize cultivars also varies regionally. By examining the effective accumulated temperature during the maize growth period in various regions, it is possible to optimize cultivars and enhance their regional adaptability. Additionally, by considering regional climate and soil conditions, and integrating model simulations, optimal sowing dates and planting densities can be determined (Fig.3). For example, the soil in Northeast China is characterized by high organic matter content and low pH, necessitating an optimized planting density of 6.76 × 10⁴ plants ha^–1[42,^43]. When describing the design of maize population structure, multiple factors need to be considered, including regional climate, soil conditions and cultivar characteristics. However, when it comes to determining the optimal planting density, soil organic matter content and pH are the most important factors to consider. Soil with high organic matter content usually has better fertility, providing a better nutritional environment and supporting plant growth. In soils with high organic matter content, plant growth can be more vigorous, making it a significant factor affecting the choice of planting density. Soil pH has a significant impact on plant growth and nutrient availability. Different crops have different adaptability to differing soil pH, and maize is no exception. Therefore, when considering planting density, it is also necessary to consider whether the soil pH is suitable for the growth of maize.

The soil of the North China Plain has the lowest organic matter content, with a recommended planting density of 7.94 × 10⁴ plants ha^–1[44]. The north-west region has high pH soil, with a suitable planting density of 10.4 × 10⁴ plants ha^–1[45], whereas the south-west region is best suited to a planting density of 5.43 × 10⁴ plants ha^–1[46]. Additionally, high-quality maize populations can be achieved through precise sowing, which has been facilitated by technological advancements leading to increased mechanization in maize production. Using a mechanized precision seeder has resulted in a significant improvement in maize emergence rates, from 75% to 98%, a reducing in inter-seedling variability by 9%, and increasing yield by 11% under identical sowing density conditions^[47].

4.2 Root layer regulation supporting high-yield and high-efficiency populations

To optimize maize production through root system enhancement, the foundational step is the strategic management of the plow layer. The technology centered on soil tillage enhances the physical and chemical properties of the soil, facilitating root development. This practice has been shown to improve the growth and development of maize roots in both Northeast and North China, augmenting root quantity and quality, enhancing root function, and facilitating the comprehensive uptake of water and nutrients^[48]. Also, fertilizer application techniques that prioritize straw return and increased organic fertilizer application effectively elevate soil organic matter levels. Straw, a significant biomass resource, contributes to soil fertility enhancement, organic matter accumulation and soil quality improvement when mixed into the soil^[49]. It contains substantial carbon, which is pivotal for microbial activity in decomposing straw and cycling soil nutrients^[50]. The presence of more microorganisms accelerates straw decomposition, with fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes metabolizing cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin into smaller organic compounds and minerals, thereby stabilizing and enhancing soil nutrient content^[51,^52]. A decade-long practice of straw retention in the field has increased soil organic carbon, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprints by 44.4%, enhanced soil carbon sequestration by 17.7%, and increased yield by 38.8%, promoting sustainable maize production^[53]. Additionally, the application of organic matter, such as animal manure as an organic fertilizer, slowly releases nutrients to the soil, significantly improving soil fertility and mitigating environmental degradation, thereby decreasing the reliance on mineral fertilizers^[54,^55]. A combined application of organic and mineral fertilizers is widely recognized as an effective strategy for achieving cleaner and more sustainable crop production^[56]. Numerous studies have examined the impact of combined organic and mineral fertilizer application on crop yield, demonstrating that it can maintain or even significantly increase yields^[57].

Finally, nutrient management is essential for optimizing maize production. By aligning fertilizer application with the spatiotemporal nutrient demands of maize, in conjunction with improved cultivars and agronomic practices, both yield enhancement and stress tolerance can be achieved. Specifically, nitrogen fertilizer, planting density and cultivar selection influence agronomic traits, such as lodging resistance. The lodging rate its highest level under low (D45) and high (D95) densities^[58], while the lowest rate recorded at 7.50 × 10⁴ plants ha⁻¹, in the North China plain of China. Under low-density conditions, increasing nitrogen fertilizer decreased lodging whereas high density, high nitrogen levels significantly increased lodging. Appropriate nitrogen and density settings markedly reduced lodging^[59]. Cultivar differences in lodging resistance are notable, with Zhongdan 909 has relatively high lodging resistance. The suitable planting areas for Zhongdan 909 mainly include Donghua, Huanghuai River, Heilongjiang and Inner Mongolia. After multiple experiments and field evaluations, the research has shown excellent performance. Overcoming the interaction between intensive planting and lodging resistance in maize, the synergistic improvement of population yields and resistance to intensive production and stress has been achieved. Using precision fertilizer application with a wide gap fertilizer applicator enhances yield and efficiency while minimizing soil mineral nitrogen leaching and environmental risks. Using ammonium sulfate and superphosphate to formulate a specialized starter fertilizer, applied 5 cm lateral and 8 cm below the seed at 230 kg·ha^–1, effectively promoted root development and resilience to low temperatures^[60]. Through appropriate application of potassium fertilizer significantly improved stem puncture strength and node height, with evenly distributed vascular bundles and an increase in small bundles, enhancing overall plant lodging resistance^[61].

Appropriate application of medium and trace element fertilizers contributed​to maize yield and quality improvement. Sulfur application ​maize drought resistance and ​drought stress. Nitrogen and sulfur regulate leaf redox balance via glutathione concentration, influencing photosynthesis. Combined nitrogen and sulfur application also significantly elevates grain cysteine levels, a crucial sulfur-containing amino acid^[62]. Additionally, zinc fertilizer reduces maize kernel tip shedding and increases kernel number per ear, thereby improving yield traits in high-density maize populations.

In addition, different regions will have different regional root layer regulation measures to ensure high yield and efficiency of maize. Spring maize areas in the Northeast and along the Great Wall. Mainly use precision irrigation, such as ground drip irrigation and shallow buried drip irrigation, and fertilizer application to ensure that the water and fertilizer needs of maize during the growth period are met^[63]. Northwest inland and spring maize irrigation areas along the Yellow River have also widely adopt drip irrigation and integrated water fertilizer technology to support high-density planting and high yield of maize through precise irrigation and fertilizer application. The technical key points include laying drip irrigation pipes, fine soil preparation, applying sufficient base fertilizer, appropriate planting density and wide-narrow row configuration^[64]. Summer maize- growing areas on the Huang Huai Fen Wei Plain also attach great importance to the application of integrated water and fertilizer technology, optimizing the growth environment of maize through precise regulation of water and fertilizer, applying appropriate cultivation and straw retention techniques to improve soil structure and enhance soil fertility^[65]. Supplementary irrigation in the Southwest maize planting area is a response to the relative scarcity of water resources, with greater emphasis put on the application of water-saving irrigation and precision fertilizer application technologies. By implementing appropriate tillage and straw retention measures, soil water holding capacity and fertility can be improved, thereby supporting high and stable yields of maize^[66].

5 Integration and application of regional technology models for maize production in China

For an extended period, the agricultural technology extension system in China has predominantly relied on government channels for the dissemination of agricultural technologies. This approach fails to align with the principles of integrating government, enterprise, university, research and application, and is inadequate for meeting farmers’ practical needs. In the context of rural revitalization, it is imperative to explore the establishment of a new model of agricultural technology promotion that integrates government, enterprise, university, research and application, transforms the mode of agricultural development, and meets the technological demands of agricultural production.

The Science and Technology Backyard (STB) has introduced a novel model integrating government, enterprise, university, research and application into agricultural technology promotion, which operates through a framework including university, government, farmer cooperative economic organizations and farmers (Fig.4). In this model, STB serve as the technological backbone, by connecting government, enterprise, research institutions and field production, it is possible to ensure that technologies and policies are directly implemented at a grassroots level, fostering seamless integration between the upstream and downstream sectors of agricultural production, promoting the sustainable development of sustainable agricultural production, enhancing production and efficiency. Local governments provide a platform for this new model, facilitating changes in farmer production and agricultural management methods. Farmer cooperative organizations are crucial in the transformation system of scientific and technological achievements. Micro-cultivators, in need of cooperative alliances for large-scale land management, boost their farming enthusiasm, improve technology dissemination efficiency and elevate agricultural production and technological levels. Colleges conducts scientific research based on agricultural production needs, continually understanding the technical requirements of farmers from a farmer-centric perspective and conducts targeted scientific experiments to serve agricultural development. Additionally, the STB collaborates closely with local agricultural technology extension stations, leveraging their work system to enhance the overall efficiency of agricultural technology extension. Through synergistic collaboration and complementarity, both entities achieve greater effectiveness and efficiency.

Taking the promotion of sustainable and efficient maize production technology in Lishu County, Jilin Province in Northeast China as an example, the STB for maize in Lishu County has established a four-in-one agricultural technology promotion model of college, government, cooperative organization, farmer integration, effectively extending technology to farmers and creating a three-win outcome through interaction of these stakeholders. In Lishu County, farmers have long faced challenges in maize production, including inappropriate fertilizer application practices, low planting density, and insufficient irrigation. Through the efforts of the STB, optimized water and nutrient management, as well as moderate increases in planting density, have been promoted as effective solutions. With robust support from the Lishu County Agricultural Technology Extension Station, the STB has engaged deeply at a grassroots level, maintaining close contact with agriculture, rural areas and farmers, and addressing the limiting factors for sustainable maize production and efficiency increase through practical, participatory approaches. The Lishu County Agricultural Technology Extension Station has collaborated closely with the STB to enhance the level of agricultural technology extension, and scientific farming knowledge of farmers has improved, transforming them into new-type professional farmers in agricultural management. This has promoted the appropriate reform of local farming land and the development of cooperatives and facilitated the large-scale application of sustainable and efficient maize production technologies, such as soil carbonization and fertilizer application, appropriate group construction, and appropriate nutrient management (Fig.5). The STB, Agricultural Technology Extension Station, Cooperatives and farmers work closely together, fostering the transformation of agricultural production methods in Lishu County, improving maize production efficiencies and yield, and further promoting local agricultural development.

The establishment of the STB model has made a significant contribution to the transformation of established agricultural practices and advancing the modernization of maize production. However, its current focus remains largely centered on plant nutrition, which limits its broader impact on agricultural development. Looking ahead, the STB should evolve into a multidisciplinary and multidimensional platform. By leveraging a framework including colleges, government, farmer cooperative economic organizations and farmers and incorporating disciplines, including crop and animal production and food sciences, it can foster collaboration to drive sustainable agricultural development.

6 Conclusions and prospects

The shift toward enhancing sustainable yield and efficiency in maize production in China is a pivotal development. To accomplish this, it is crucial to tackle the specific challenges and constraints in the four primary maize-producing regions of China. By adopting sustainable maize yield enhancement technologies focused on integrated soil-crop system management, through the integration and dissemination of region-specific technical models, comprehensive maize yield has increased by 11.5% nationwide, nitrogen use has decreased by 14.7%, efficiency has improved by 33.4%, and emissions have been reduced by 15%. These achievements provide a strong foundation for sustainable and efficient maize production in major maize-producing regions. The key to achieving sustainable yield enhancement and efficiency in maize production is to tailor strategies to local conditions. This involves aligning regional constraints with precision technologies, constructing high-yielding maize populations through precise canopy-root system matching, and combining precise nutrient supply with soil fertility improvement. Additionally, leveraging the government-enterprise-university-research-application model, centered around the STB, will facilitate the realization of sustainable and efficient maize production, and its development at increasing scale and with more rapid modernization.

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