Compositional Heterogeneity of Glass Beads from Chang’E-5 Lunar Soil and Implications for Regolith Sources and Surface Impact Processes

Abstract

Glass beads in lunar soil provide valuable records of impact processes and evolutionary history of the lunar surface. This study conducted microstructural analyses on approximately 50 glass beads from the Chang’E-5 lunar soil and further performed chemical composition analyses on 36 of these beads, revealing significant variations in their major and trace element contents. Approximately half of the glass beads preserve signatures of meteorite impacts on the lunar surface, including residual debris, fringe structures, vesicles, iron-nickel metal particles, and irregular shapes. The remaining glass beads display features of rapidly quenched molten droplets, resulting in non-crystalline glass structures and microcrystalline formations. Based on electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analyses of major and trace element compositions, the glass beads are classified into four types: single-mineral fused type, mid-Ti type (4.0 wt.%–7.0 wt.% TiO₂), low-Ti type (1.3 wt.%–3.9 wt.% TiO₂), and high-Al type (Al₂O₃ > 14 wt.%, with CaO/Al₂O₃ < 0.75). The CIPW normative mineral assemblage and rare earth element data collectively indicate that glass beads formed by single-mineral melting can be readily distinguished and therefore used for better constraining the proportion of foreign materials in the glass. The mid-Ti glass beads, enriched in lunar mare components, provide insights into the composition of lunar soil and rocks near the landing site. The low-Ti glass beads highlight the lithological diversity of adjacent lunar mare units. The high-Al glass beads are interpreted as products of collisions and mixing between KREEP and highland components. In addition, a few mid-Ti glass beads exhibit exceptionally high contents of Cl (up to ∼300 ppm) and SO₃ (up to ∼0.3 wt.%), likely indicating the incorporation of vapor from the impact plume and vapor condensation during the impact process.

Keywords

Chang’E-5 mission / lunar glass bead / impact melt / volatiles / lunar exploration

References

[1] Boyce J W, Treiman A H, Guan Y B, et al. The Chlorine Isotope Fingerprint of the Lunar Magma Ocean. Science Advances, 2015, 18e1500380.

[2] Boynton W V. Henderson P. Cosmochemistry of the Rare Earth Elements: Meteorite Studies. Rare Earth Element Geochemistry, 1984, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 63-114.

[3] Cao Z, Xiao Z Y, Wu Y H, et al. A Submillimeter Iron Particle in Chang’E-6 Lunar Soil. Journal of Earth Science, 2025, 36523592364.

[4] Chao E C T, Boreman J A, Minkin J A, et al. Lunar Glasses of Impact Origin: Physical and Chemical Characteristics and Geologic Implications. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1970, 753574457479.

[5] Chen Y, Hu S, Li J H, et al. Chang’E-5 Lunar Samples Shed New Light on the Moon. The Innovation Geoscience, 2023, 11100014.

[6] Delano J W. Pristine Lunar Glasses: Criteria, Data, and Implications. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 1986, 91B4201213.

[7] Delano J W. Geochemical Comparison of Impact Glasses from Lunar Meteorites ALHA81005 and MAC88105 and Apollo 16 Regolith 64001. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1991, 551130193029.

[8] Delano J W, Lindsley D H, Ma M S, et al. The Apollo 15 Yellow Impact Glasses: Chemistry, Petrology, and Exotic Origin. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 1982, 87S01159170.

[9] Delano J W, Zellner N E B, Barra F, et al. An Integrated Approach to Understanding Apollo 16 Impact Glasses: Chemistry, Isotopes, and Shape. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 2007, 4269931004.

[10] Ding C L, Nemchin A, Johnson T, et al. A Potential Mantle Origin for Precursor Rocks of High-Mg Impact Glass Beads in Chang’E-5 Soil. Science Advances, 2025, 1119eadv9019.

[11] Fu X H, Yin C X, Jolliff B L, et al. Understanding the Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Chang’E-5 Soil and Implications for Its Geological Significances. Icarus, 2022, 388: 115254.

[12] Gargano A, Sharp Z, Shearer C, et al. The Cl Isotope Composition and Halogen Contents of Apollo-Return Samples. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2020, 117382341823425.

[13] Giguere T A, Taylor G J, Hawke B R, et al. The Titanium Contents of Lunar Mare Basalts. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 2000, 351193200.

[14] Glass B P. Investigation of Glass Recovered from Apollo 12 Sample 12057. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1971, 762356495657.

[15] Glotch T D, Jawin E R, Greenhagen B T, et al. The Scientific Value of a Sustained Exploration Program at the Aristarchus Plateau. The Planetary Science Journal, 2021, 24136.

[16] Gnos E, Hofmann B A, Al-Kathiri A, et al. Pinpointing the Source of a Lunar Meteorite: Implications for the Evolution of the Moon. Science, 2004, 3055684657659.

[17] Gombosi D J, Baldwin S L, Watson E B, et al. Argon Diffusion in Apollo 16 Impact Glass Spherules: Implications for ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar Dating of Lunar Impact Events. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2015, 148: 251-268.

[18] Harries D, Langenhorst F. The Nanoscale Mineralogy of Fe, Ni Sulfides in Pristine and Metamorphosed CM and CM/CI-Like Chondrites: Tapping a Petrogenetic Record. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 2013, 485879903.

[19] Hauri E H, Saal A E, Rutherford M J, et al. Water in the Moon’s Interior: Truth and Consequences. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2015, 409: 252-264.

[20] He H C, Ji J L, Zhang Y, et al. A Solar Wind-Derived Water Reservoir on the Moon Hosted by Impact Glass Beads. Nature Geoscience, 2023, 164294300.

[21] He Q, Li Y, Baziotis I, et al. Detailed petrogenesis of the unsampled Oceanus Procellarum: The Case of the Chang’E-5 Mare Basalts. Icarus, 2022, 383: 115082.

[22] He Q, Xiao L, Baziotis I, et al. Complexity of the NWA 773 Clan: New Evidence from Lunar Olivine Gabbro NWA 6950. Journal of Earth Science, 2025, 36522242239.

[23] Jia B J, Fa W Z, Zhang M W, et al. On the Provenance of the Chang’E-5 Lunar Samples. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2022, 596: 117791.

[24] Jiang Y, Kang J T, Liao S Y, et al. Fe and Mg Isotope Compositions Indicate a Hybrid Mantle Source for Young Chang’E 5 Mare Basalts. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 2023, 9452L26.

[25] Jing J J, Berndt J, Kuwahara H, et al. Halogen Abundance Evidence for the Formation and Metasomatism of the Primary Lunar Crust. Nature Communications, 2025, 16: 5337.

[26] Joy K H, Crawford I A, Downes H, et al. A Petrological, Mineralogical, and Chemical Analysis of the Lunar Mare Basalt Meteorite LaPaz Icefield 02205, 02224, and 02226. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 2006, 41710031025.

[27] Kato C, Moynier F, Valdes M C, et al. Extensive Volatile Loss during Formation and Differentiation of the Moon. Nature Communications, 2015, 6: 7617.

[28] Korotev R L, Jolliff B L, Zeigler R A, et al. Apollo 12 Revisited. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2011, 75615401573.

[29] Korotev R L, Zeigler R A, Floss C. On the Origin of Impact Glass in the Apollo 16 Regolith. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2010, 742473627388.

[30] Li G X, Chen X, Zheng Y Y, et al. Research Progress and Prospects of Gas Geochemical Exploration. Earth Science, 2025, 501144734498(in Chinese with English Abstract)

[31] Li R, Du W, Yang J. Petrogenesis of the Lunar Volcanic Glasses and Mg-Suite: Constraints on a Post-Magma-Ocean Cumulate Overturn. Acta Geochimica, 2022, 414717729.

[32] Li X G, Chen Y, Tang X, et al. Thermally Induced Phase Transition of Troilite during Micro-Raman Spectroscopy Analysis. Icarus, 2023, 390: 115299.

[33] Liu X Y, Hao J L, Li R Y, et al. Sulfur Isotopic Fractionation of the Youngest Chang’E-5 Basalts: Constraints on the Magma Degassing and Geochemical Features of the Mantle Source. Geophysical Research Letters, 2022, 49159.

[34] Liu Z H, Liu Y, Liu J, et al. Distribution Characteristics and Research Progress of Water-Ice on Mars. Earth Science, 2024, 49622532276(in Chinese with English Abstract)

[35] Long T, Qian Y Q, Norman M D, et al. Constraining the Formation and Transport of Lunar Impact Glasses Using the Ages and Chemical Compositions of Chang’E-5 Glass Beads. Science Advances, 2022, 839eabq2542.

[36] Lucey P, Korotev R L, Gillis J J, et al. Understanding the Lunar Surface and Space-Moon Interactions. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 2006, 60183219.

[37] McDonough W F, Sun S S. The Composition of the Earth. Chemical Geology, 1995, 1203/4223253.

[38] McKay D S, Greenwood W R, Morrison D A. Origin of Small Lunar Particles and Breccia from the Apollo 11 Site. Proceedings of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference, Vol. 1, 1970, Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd, 673-694

[39] Mei A X, Jiang Y, Liao S Y, et al. KREEP-Rich Breccia in Chang’E-5 Regolith and Its Implications. Science China Earth Sciences, 2023, 661124732486.

[40] Meyer CJr.Brett R, Hubbard N J, et al. Mineralogy, Chemistry, and Origin of the KREEP Component in Soil Samples from the Ocean of Storms. Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Proceedings, 1971, 2: 393

[41] Moore C B, Cripe J D. The Distribution of Sulfur in Lunar Rocks and Its Relationship to Carbon Content. The Moon, 1977, 163295310.

[42] Naney M, Crowl D, Papike J. The Apollo 16 Drill Core: Statistical Analysis of Glass Chemistry and the Characterization of a High Alumina-Silica Poor (HASP) Glass. Proceedings of 7th Lunar and planetary Science Conference. Mar. 15–19, 1976, Houston, 197677A34663

[43] Nemchin A A, Norman M D, Grange M L, et al. U-Pb Isotope Systematics and Impact Ages Recorded by a Chemically Diverse Population of Glasses from an Apollo 14 Lunar Soil. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2022, 321: 206-243.

[44] Nemchin A A, Whitehouse M J, Grange M L, et al. On the Elusive Isotopic Composition of Lunar Pb. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2011, 751029402964.

[45] Nguyen P, Zellner N. Using Size and Composition to Assess the Quality of Lunar Impact Glass Ages. Geosciences, 2019, 9285.

[46] Pan Q, Xiao Z Y. Magnetic Property Study of Australasian Tektites from South China. Earth Science, 2024, 49827662788(in Chinese with English Abstract)

[47] Pang R L, Yang J, Li R, et al. Redox Condition Changes Caused by Impacts: Insights from Chang’E-5 Lunar Glass Beads. Science Bulletin, 2024, 691014951505.

[48] Pieters, C. M., Taylor, L. A., 2003. Systematic Global Mixing and Melting in Lunar Soil Evolution. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(20). https://doi.org/10.1029/2003gl018212

[49] Qian Y Q, Xiao L, Wang Q, et al. China’s Chang’E-5 Landing Site: Geology, Stratigraphy, and Provenance of Materials. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2021, 561: 116855.

[50] Renggli C J, King P L, Henley R W, et al. Volcanic Gas Composition, Metal Dispersion and Deposition during Explosive Volcanic Eruptions on the Moon. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2017, 206: 296-311.

[51] Rhodes J M, Hubbard N J J L. Chemistry, Classification, and Petrogenesis of Apollo 15 Mare Basalts. Proceedings of the 4th Lunar Science Conference, 1973, 4: 1467-1489

[52] Rhodes J, Brannon J, Rodgers K, et al. Chemistry of Apollo 12 Mare Basalts: Magma Types and Fractionation Processes. Proceedings of the 8th Lunar Science Conference, 1977, 8: 1305-1338

[53] Saal A E, Hauri E H. Large Sulfur Isotope Fractionation in Lunar Volcanic Glasses Reveals the Magmatic Differentiation and Degassing of the Moon. Science Advances, 2021, 79eabe4641.

[54] Saal A E, Hauri E H, Cascio M L, et al. Volatile Content of Lunar Volcanic Glasses and the Presence of Water in the Moon’s Interior. Nature, 2008, 4547201192195.

[55] Sharp Z D, Shearer C K, McKeegan K D, et al. The Chlorine Isotope Composition of the Moon and Implications for an Anhydrous Mantle. Science, 2010, 329599510501053.

[56] Shearer C K, Papike J J. Basaltic Magmatism on the Moon: A Perspective from Volcanic Picritic Glass Beads. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1993, 571947854812.

[57] Shen L Q, Zhao R, Chang C, et al. Separate Effects of Irradiation and Impacts on Lunar Metallic Iron Formation Observed in Chang’e-5 Samples. Nature Astronomy, 2024, 8911101118.

[58] Straub S M, Layne G D. The Systematics of Chlorine, Fluorine, and Water in Izu Arc Front Volcanic Rocks: Implications for Volatile Recycling in Subduction Zones. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2003, 672141794203.

[59] Su B, Yuan J Y, Chen Y, et al. Fusible Mantle Cumulates Trigger Young Mare Volcanism on the Cooling Moon. Science Advances, 2022, 842eabn2103.

[60] Su X, Zhang Y X, Liu Y. Sulfur Outgassing and In-Gassing in Lunar Orange Glass Beads and Implications for ³³S “Anomaly” in the Moon. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2025, 397: 164-175.

[61] Su X, Zhang Y X, Liu Y, et al. Outgassing and In-Gassing of Na, K and Cu in Lunar 74220 Orange Glass Beads. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2023, 602: 117924.

[62] Taylor G, Wentworth S, Warner R, et al. Major-Element Compositional Variations of KREEP. Lunar and Planetary Science XI, 1980, Houston: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1131-1133

[63] Thordarson T, Self S, Óskarsson N, et al. Sulfur, Chlorine, and Fluorine Degassing and Atmospheric Loading by the 1783–1784 AD Laki (Skaftár Fires) Eruption in Iceland. Bulletin of Volcanology, 1996, 582/3205225.

[64] Tian H C, Wang H, Chen Y, et al. Non-KREEP Origin for Chang’E-5 Basalts in the Procellarum KREEP Terrane. Nature, 2021, 60078875963.

[65] Wang L, Tang H Y, Wang X, et al. The Cretaceous Volcanic Rocks in the Eastern North China Craton: Records of Heterogeneous Modification of Recycled Crustal Components. Earth Science, 2024, 492669684(in Chinese with English Abstract)

[66] Wang B W, Qian W L Z, et al. Size Matters: Chemical Representativeness of Lunar Impact-Generated Glass Beads. Atomic Spectroscory, 2025, 46: 119-130

[67] Wang B W, Zhang Q W L, Chen Y, et al. Returned Samples Indicate Volcanism on the Moon 120 Million Years Ago. Science, 2024, 385671310771080.

[68] Wang S S, Li L X, Hui H J, et al. Geochemical Characteristics of Minerals and Glass in Chang’E-5 Breccia Fragments. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 2025, 41411351148. in Chinese with English Abstract)

[69] Wang Y C, Xiao Z Y, Ma P, et al. Geological Context of the SLIM Landing Site. Journal of Earth Science, 2024, 352708711.

[70] Warren P H. KREEP: Major-Element Diversity, Trace-Element Uniformity (Almost). Moon in Transition: Apollo 14, KREEP, and Evolved Lunar Rocks, 1989, Houston: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 149-15389-03

[71] Wentworth S J, McKay D S, Lindstrom D J, et al. Apollo 12 Ropy Glasses Revisited. Meteoritics, 1994, 293323333.

[72] Wu F Y, Li Q L, Chen Y, et al. Lunar Evolution in Light of the Chang’E-5 Returned Samples. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 2024, 52: 159-194.

[73] Wu Y H, Liao S Y, Yan P, et al. Impact-Related Chemical Modifications of the Chang’E-5 Lunar Regolith. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2023, 363: 94-113.

[74] Yan P, Xiao Z Y, Wu Y H, et al. Intricate Regolith Reworking Processes Revealed by Microstructures on Lunar Impact Glasses. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 2022, 12712e2022JE007260.

[75] Yan P, Xiao Z Y, Wu Y X, et al. Adhesion of Silicate Impact Melts on Impact Glasses of Chang’E-5 Regolith. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 2024, 12912e2024JE008777.

[76] Yang W, Chen Y, Wang H, et al. Geochemistry of Impact Glasses in the Chang’E-5 Regolith: Constraints on Impact Melting and the Petrogenesis of Local Basalt. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2022, 335: 183-196.

[77] Yang W, Lin Y T. New Lunar Samples Returned by Chang’E-5: Opportunities for New Discoveries and International Collaboration. The Innovation, 2021, 21100070.

[78] Yuan J Y, Huang H, Chen Y, et al. Automatic Bulk Composition Analysis of Lunar Basalts: Novel Big-Data Algorithm for Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 2023, 72370378.

[79] Zeigler R A, Korotev R L, Jolliff B L, et al. The Geochemistry and Provenance of Apollo 16 Mafic Glasses. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2006, 702460506067.

[80] Zellner N E B. Lunar Impact Glasses: Probing the Moon’s Surface and Constraining Its Impact History. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 2019, 1241126862702.

[81] Zellner N E B, Delano J W. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar Ages of Lunar Impact Glasses: Relationships among Ar Diffusivity, Chemical Composition, Shape, and Size. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2015, 161: 203-218.

[82] Zellner N E B, Delano J W, Swindle T D, et al. Apollo 17 Regolith, 71501, 262: A Record of Impact Events and Mare Volcanism in Lunar Glasses. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 2009, 446839851.

[83] Zellner N E B, Delano J W, Swindle T D, et al. Evidence from ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar Ages of Lunar Impact Glasses for an Increase in the Impact Rate ∼800 Ma ago. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2009, 731545904597.

[84] Zellner N E B, Spudis P D, Delano J W, et al. Impact Glasses from the Apollo 14 Landing Site and Implications for Regional Geology. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 2002, 107E11113.

[85] Zeng X J, Li X Y, Liu J Z. Exotic Clasts in Chang’E-5 Regolith Indicative of Unexplored Terrane on the Moon. Nature Astronomy, 2022, 72152159

[86] Zhang C, Koepke J, Wang L X, et al. A Practical Method for Accurate Measurement of Trace Level Fluorine in Mg- and Fe-Bearing Minerals and Glasses Using Electron Probe Microanalysis. Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research, 2016, 403351363.

[87] Zhang C, Pu H X, Liu J Q, et al. Coexisting Carbonatite and Silicate Melt Inclusions in the Cretaceous Volcanic Rock from the Central Great Xing’an Range, Northeast China: Evidence for Recycled Carbonate from Subducted Paleo-Pacific Plate. Journal of Earth Science, 2025, 361364372.

[88] Zhang Q W L, Su B, Lanari P, et al. Compositional Complexity of Heterogeneous Impact Glasses in Lunar Soils: Significance and Pitfalls. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 2025, 180429.

[89] Zhang Y, Hui H J, Hu S, et al. Extremely Large Cl Isotopic Fractionation in Chang’E-5 Impact Glass Beads. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2024, 644: 118933.

[90] Zong K Q, Wang Z C, Li J W, et al. Bulk Compositions of the Chang’E-5 Lunar Soil: Insights into Chemical Homogeneity, Exotic Addition, and Origin of Landing Site Basalts. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2022, 335: 284-296.

Rights & permissions

China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, Part of Springer Nature