High-Resolution 3D Geological Modelling and Subsurface Architecture of the Valencia Urban Area (Spain): Insights into Urban Complexity

Abstract

The lack of detailed information on Valencia’s subsurface configuration poses significant challenges for civil engineering and urban planning projects. To date, most studies have focused on geotechnical aspects or shallow sedimentology, providing only a limited understanding of the horizontal and lateral variability of sedimentary facies characteristic of alluvial environments. This study presents a high-resolution model of the first 50 m of the Holocene subsurface in central Valencia, providing new insights into its geological architecture and shallow aquifer system. The methodology integrates geological and geotechnical data with direct drilling, offering detailed lithological information. Sedimentological, stratigraphic, and paleoenvironmental analyses enabled stratigraphic correlation and a 3D subsurface reconstruction. Four detrital sedimentary facies were identified: silts and clays, sands, gravels, and pebbles, subdivided into channel and lobe facies. The paleoenvironmental model suggests a coastal fan system (fan-delta) with occasional marine reworking at its front. This study reconstructs the geometry of the Holocene stratigraphic framework, illustrating the depth distribution and lateral variability of deposits. Additionally, it provides a fundamental framework for improving the understanding of Valencia’s subsurface, serving as a valuable tool for future planning and development projects in the region.

Keywords

urban geological modeling / Valencia / 3D model / Holocene / fan-delta / facies correlation / engineering geology

References

[1] Acosta M L, Carmona P. Mateu Bellés J F, Furió A. La Restinga de la Albufera: Análisis Geomorfológico de las Formaciones Dunares del Plano del Término Municipal de València (1929 - 1944). A Vicenç M. Rosselló, Geògraf, als Seus 90 Anys, 2021, València: Universitat de València

[2] Admiraal H, Cornaro A. Why Underground Space should Be Included in Urban Planning Policy–And How This Will Enhance an Urban Underground Future. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2016, 55: 214-220.

[3] Ahrens J, Geveci B, Law C. ParaView: An End-User Tool for Large-Data Visualization. Visualization Handbook, 2005, Amsterdam: Elsevier

[4] Albarracín S. Evolución Geomorfológica de la Plataforma Continental del Golfo de Valencia Durante el Cuaternario, 2013, Valencia: Universidad Católica de Valencia

[5] Alcántara-Carrió J, Albarracín S, Montoya Montes I, et al. An Indurated Pleistocene Coastal Barrier on the Inner Shelf of the Gulf of Valencia (Western Mediterranean): Evidence for a Prolonged Relative Sea-Level Stillstand. Geo-Marine Letters, 2013, 332209216.

[6] Andersen T R, Poulsen S E, Pagola M A, et al. Geophysical Mapping and 3D Geological Modelling to Support Urban Planning: A Case Study from Vejle, Denmark. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 2020, 180: 104130.

[7] Aslan A, Autin W J. Holocene Flood-Plain Soil Formation in the Southern Lower Mississippi Valley: Implications for Interpreting Alluvial Paleosols. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 1998, 110: 433-449.

[8] Bourgine B, Dominique S, Marache A, et al. Tools and Methods for Constructing 3D Geological Models in the Urban Environment: The Case of Bordeaux, 2006IAEG2006 Paper Number 72

[9] Callea de la Vega A, Villafañe P G. SedLog Drilling Cores from Two Transects (V1). Mendeley Data, 2025

[10] Carmona P. Geomorfología de la Llanura de Valencia. El río Turia y la Ciudad. Historia de la Ciudad, 2002

[11] Carmona P, Ruiz J M. La Desembocadura del Guadalaviar en Época Medieval: Progradación Deltaica y Avulsió. Geoarqueología Quaternari Litoral: Memorial María Pilar Fumanal, 1999, València: Universitat de València

[12] Carmona P, Ruiz J M. Evolución en el Holoceno Reciente del Delta del río Turia y la Restinga de la Albufera de Valencia. Geoarqueología Quaternari Litoral: Memorial María Pilar Fumanal, 1999321330

[13] Carmona P, Ruiz J M. Historical Morphogenesis of the Turia River Coastal Flood Plain in the Mediterranean Littoral of Spain. CATENA, 2011, 863139149.

[14] Carmona P, Ruiz J M. Procesos Geomorfológicos en Llanos de Inundación y Lagos Costeros Mediterráneos: El Cambio Ambiental Histórico en la Albufera de Valencia (España). Cuaternario y Geomorfología, 2014, 283–4125

[15] Carmona P, Ruiz-Pérez J M, Blázquez A M, et al. Environmental Evolution and Mid – Late Holocene Climate Events in the Valencia Lagoon (Mediterranean Coast of Spain). The Holocene, 2016, 261117501765.

[16] Chant L J D, Pease P P, Tchakerian V P. Modelling Alluvial Fan Morphology. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 1999, 247641652.

[17] Corel CorporationCorelDRAW Graphics Suite (2020), 2020

[18] Custodio E, Llamas M. Hidrología Subterránea. Tomo 1, 1986, Barcelona: Segunda Edición, 1157

[19] de Chant L J, Pease P P, Tchakerian V P. Modelling Alluvial Fan Morphology. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 1999, 247641652.

[20] de Santisteban Bové C, Ramos A. La Estructura de la Hoya del Prado, Sierra de Javalambre, Teruel: Una caldera volcánica de Colapso Jurásica. Geotemas (Madrid), 2024, 20: 114

[21] de Santisteban Bové C, Ramos A. Tipología y Estructura de Depósitos de Tamiz En La Franja Terminal de Abanicos Aluviales de Bajo Relieve (Rambla Castellarda, Valencia). Geogaceta, 2024, 76: 7-10.

[22] Ercilla G, Díaz J I, Alonso B, et al. Late Pleistocene-Holocene Sedimentary Evolution of the Northern Catalonia Continental Shelf (Northwestern Mediterranean Sea). Continental Shelf Research, 1995, 1511/1214351451.

[23] Eschard R, Lemouzy P, Bacchiana C, et al. Combining Sequence Stratigraphy, Geostatistical Simulations, and Production Data for Modeling a Fluvial Reservoir in the Chaunoy Field (Triassic, France). AAPG Bulletin, 1998, 824545568.

[24] Falivene O, Arbues P, Gardiner A, et al. Best Practice Stochastic Facies Modeling from a Channel-Fill Turbidite Sandstone Analog (the Quarry Outcrop, Eocene Ainsa Basin, Northeast Spain). AAPG Bulletin, 2006, 90710031029.

[25] Fetter C W, Kreamer D. Applied Hydrogeology, 2021, Long Grove: Waveland Press

[26] Fielding C R, Trueman J D, Alexander J. Holocene Depositional History of the Burdekin River Delta of Northeastern Australia: A Model for a Low-Accommodation, Highstand Delta. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2006, 763411428.

[27] Folk R L, Andrews P B, Lewis D W. Detrital Sedimentary Rock Classification and Nomenclature for Use in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 1970, 134937968.

[28] Gaki-Papanastassiou K, Cundy A B, Maroukian H. Fluvial versus Tectonic Controls on the Late Holocene Geomorphic and Sedimentary Evolution of a Small Mediterranean Fan Delta System. The Journal of Geology, 2011, 1192221234.

[29] Giacomelli S, Zuccarini A, Amorosi A, et al. 3D Geological Modelling of the Bologna Urban Area (Italy). Engineering Geology, 2023, 324: 107242.

[30] Goy V J L, Vegas Martínez R, Zazo Cardeña C, et al. Mapa Geológico de España a Escala 1: 50.000. Hoja 722 (Valencia), 1974, Madrid: Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Ministerio de Industria

[31] Goy V J L, Vegas Martínez R, Zazo Cardeña C, et al. Memoria. Hoja 722 (Valencia), 1974, Madrid: Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Ministerio de Industria

[32] Harvey A M. The Role of Alluvial Fans in the Mountain Fluvial Systems of Southeast Spain: Implications of Climatic Change. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 1996, 216543553.

[33] Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME)Estudio Geotérmico Preliminar de las Provincias de Castellón, Valencia y Alicante, 1980, Madrid: Instituto Geológico y Minero de España

[34] Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (ITME)Confederación Hidrográfica del Júcar (CHJ)Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino (MARM), Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN)Informe Sobre la Caracterización Básica de las Masas de Agua Subterránea de la Confederación Hidrográfica del Júcar, 2011, Madrid: Instituto Geológico y Minero de España

[35] Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España (ITGE)Estudio de las Aguas Subterráneas en el Término Municipal de Valencia (Valencia) (Vol. 1, p. 38), 1985, Madrid: Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España

[36] Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España (ITGE)Informe de la Calidad Química de la Red de Control de la Cuenca Media y Baja Del Júcar. Memoria, Anejos y Planos. Valencia 1995, 1995, Madrid: Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España

[37] Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España (ITGE)Comportamiento de los Acuíferos en las Actuaciones de Sequía Para uso Agrícola en la Comunidad Valenciana. Plana de Valencia Norte y Sur, Liria Casinos. Años 1995–1996–1997, 1997, Madrid: Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España

[38] Jarna A, Grøtan B O, Henderson I H C, et al. Managing Geological Profiles in Databases for 3D Visualisation. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 2016, XLII-2/W2: 115-121.

[39] Jarriel T, Swartz J, Passalacqua P. Global Rates and Patterns of Channel Migration in River Deltas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2021, 11846e2103178118.

[40] Khokhlova O, Oleinik S A, Kovalevskaya I S. The Distinctions between Diagenetic and Epigenetic Types of Carbonate Concentrations in the Buried Holocene Soils of the Chernozemic Zone. Pochvovedenie, 2000, 33: 28-37

[41] Kokkala A, Marinos V. An Engineering Geological Database for Managing, Planning and Protecting Intelligent Cities: The Case of Thessaloniki City in Northern Greece. Engineering Geology, 2022, 301: 106617.

[42] Li J, Liu P R, Wang X Y, et al. 3D Geological Implicit Modeling Method of Regular Voxel Splitting Based on Layered Interpolation Data. Scientific Reports, 2022, 12: 13840.

[43] López-Belzunce M, Blázquez A M, Sánchez-Palencia Y, et al. Environmental Evidence of Valencia Lagoon Coastal Barrier Stabilization from 8500 BP to Present. Climate and Eustatic Variations. Science of The Total Environment, 2022, 807: 151230. Pt 2

[44] Mack G H, Rasmussen K A. Alluvial-Fan Sedimentation of the Cutler Formation (Permo-Pennsylvanian) near Gateway, Colorado. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 1984, 951109116.

[45] Maples S R, Fogg G E, Maxwell R M. Modeling Managed Aquifer Recharge Processes in a Highly Heterogeneous, Semi-Confined Aquifer System. Hydrogeology Journal, 2019, 27828692888.

[46] Martínez-López F, Ribarrocha-García V. Mol·Luscs d’Aigües Continentals de la Comunitat Valenciana, 2016, Valencia: Publicacions Generalitat Valenciana

[47] Martínez-Ortíz L, Pupo-Santos R, Altshuler P, et al. Penetration of Fox and Human Skulls into Granular matter: Oversimplifying a Complex Phenomenon?. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2024, 12133e2410281121.

[48] Mathers S, Zalasiewicz J. Holocene Sedimentary Architecture of the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Journal of Coastal Research, 1999, 152314325

[49] Ministerio de FomentoEstudio Informativo de la Línea Ferroviaria Valencia-Alicante (Tren de la Costa). Fase II, Tramo Cullera-Gandía, 201616

[50] Morales J A. The Spanish Coastal Systems: Dynamic Processes, Sediments and Management, 2008, Herbin: Springer

[51] Nelson C H, Maldonado A. Factors Controlling Late Cenozoic Continental Margin Growth from the Ebro Delta to the Western Mediterranean Deep Sea. Marine Geology, 1990, 953/4419440.

[52] Parker G. Progress in the Modeling of Alluvial Fans. Journal of Hydraulic Research, 1999, 376805825.

[53] Priya B, Dodagoudar G. Building 3D Subsurface Models and Mapping Depth to Weathered Rock in Chennai, South India. Journal of Geomatics, 2017, 112191200

[54] QGIS Development TeamQGIS Geographic Information System, version 3.22.14-Białowieża, 2021

[55] Remy N, Boucher A, Wu J B. Applied Geostatistics with SGeMS, 2009, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

[56] Rosselló i Verger V M. Los Ríos Júcar y Turia en la Génesis de Albufera de Valencia. Cuadernos de Geografía, 1972, 11: 7-25

[57] Sanjaume E, Segura F, López M J, et al. Las Costas Valencianas: Sedimentología y Morfología, 1985, València: Sección de Geografía, Universitat de València

[58] Segura Beltrán F. Las ramblas Valencianas: Algunos Aspectos de Hidrología, Geomorfología y Sedimentología, 1987, València: Universitat de València

[59] Sohn Y K, Kim S B, Hwang I G, et al. Characteristics and Depositional Processes of Large-Scale Gravelly Gilbert-Type Foresets in the Miocene Doumsan Fan Delta, Pohang Basin, Se Korea. SEPM Journal of Sedimentary Research, 1997, 671130141.

[60] Spychala Y T, Hodgson D M, Prélat A, et al. Frontal and Lateral Submarine Lobe Fringes: Comparing Sedimentary Facies, Architecture and Flow Processes. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2017, 8717596.

[61] Tanner W F. The Particle Size Scale. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 1969, 392809812.

[62] Udden J A. Mechanical Composition of Clastic Sediments. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 1914, 251655744.

[63] von der Tann L, Metje N, Admiraal H, et al. The Hidden Role of the Subsurface for Cities. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Civil Engineering, 2018, 17163137.

[64] Vu V H, Doan D L, Nguyen T D, et al. Holocene Sedimentary Facies in Coastal Plain of the Song Ma Delta, Thanh Hoa Province. Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 2019, 413229239.

[65] Wellmann F, Caumon G. 3-D Structural Geological models: Concepts, Methods, and Uncertainties. Advances in Geophysics, 2018, Amsterdam: Elsevier

[66] Wentworth C K. A Scale of Grade and Class Terms for Clastic Sediments. Journal of Geology, 1922, 305377392.

[67] Wentworth C K. The Terminology of Coarse Sediments. National Research Council Bulletin, 1935, 98: 225-246

[68] Zervas D, Nichols G J, Hall R, et al. SedLog: A Shareware Program for Drawing Graphic Logs and Log Data Manipulation. Computers & Geosciences, 2009, 351021512159.

[69] Zhang T F. Incorporating Geological Conceptual Models and Interpretations into Reservoir Modeling Using Multiple-Point Geostatistics. Earth Science Frontiers, 2008, 1512635.

[70] Zhou F, Li M H, Huang C J, et al. Lithology-Based 3D Modeling of Urban Geological Attributes and Their Engineering Application: A Case Study of Guang’an City, SW China. Frontiers in Earth Science, 2022, 10: 918285.

Rights & permissions

China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, Part of Springer Nature