Detrital Zircon U-Pb Age Analysis of Late Pliocene Deposits from the Lower Yangtze River, South China: Implications for Sedimentary Provenance and Evolution of the Yangtze River

Abstract

The Yangtze River, with a length of approximately 6 300 km, holds the distinction of being the largest river in East Asia that empties into the Pacific Ocean. Its formation is intricately linked to regional tectonic activity and climate fluctuations. However, the exact timeline for the formation of the Yangtze River remains elusive. This study investigates the provenance of the Late Cenozoic strata in the Wangjiang Basin, situated in the Lower Yangtze River, through the application of detrital zircon U-Pb dating. Seven sand samples were analyzed, leading to the identification of new U-Pb detrital zircon ages (n = 577). Our study reveals that the sand materials found in the Pliocene gravel beds of the Anqing Formation originate predominantly from the Yangtze River. The findings of our study, along with the provenance tracing of boreholes in the Yangtze River Basin and the shelf sea in East China, provide compelling evidence for the continuous presence of the Yangtze River throughout the Pliocene period. The development of the Yangtze River during the Pliocene is intricately connected to both the tectonic adjustments occurring at the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and the intensification of the Asian Monsoon.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Yangtze River / Wangjiang Basin / Pliocene / Tibetan Plateau / Asian Monsoon / climate change

0 INTRODUCTION

The formation of fluvial systems is a multifaceted process that is influenced by various geologic and climatic factors (Lin et al., 2024a; Burbank and Anderson, 2013; Li et al., 2001; Potter, 1978). Consequently, it is possible to establish a more accurate timeline for tectonic activity and climate change in the region by precisely determining the initiation of river systems (Lin et al., 2024b; Jolivet et al., 2021; Bentley et al., 2016; Latrubesse et al., 2010; Liu-Zeng et al., 2008). Specifically, studies on the chronology of the formation of large rivers spanning continents, like the Yangtze River connecting the Tibetan Plateau and the Pacific Ocean, provide valuable insights into the emergence of geomorphic patterns in East Asia (Zheng et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2009; Clark et al., 2004; Wang, 2004) as well as the evolution of the Asian Monsoon (Tian et al., 2025; Wan et al., 2012; Clift et al., 2008a).

The investigation into the timing of the formation of the Yangtze River has been ongoing for nearly a century (Willis et al., 1907). Nevertheless, the exact timing of the origin of the Yangtze River has been a matter of debate due to the extensive size of the Yangtze River Basin and the complex tectonic activities taking place within it. These debates predominantly emerge in three key research areas pertaining to the Yangtze River: the first bend of Shigu Town in the Upper Yangtze River, the Three Gorges in the Middle Yangtze River, and the delta in the Lower Yangtze River (Figure 1A). Based on zircon U-Pb dating results for provenance tracing (Feng et al., 2021; Zheng et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2017; Yan et al., 2012), heavy mineral analysis (He et al., 2021), and K-feldspar Pb isotopic compositions (Zhang Z J et al., 2017; Clift et al., 2008b), researchers have proposed that the Upper Yangtze River separated from the paleo-Red River system and began flowing eastward between 36 and 23 Ma (Figure 1a). However, alternative studies have suggested different timings for this event, proposing that it occurred during the Miocene (18–9 Ma, McPhillips et al., 2016), Pliocene (Zhao et al., 2021), or Early Pleistocene (1.5–1.3 Ma; Deng et al., 2021; Kong et al., 2012,2009). The Three Gorges region serves as a crucial link between the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River (Lin et al., 2023a; Li et al., 2001; Figure 1a). Geologically, the Yangtze River cut through the Three Gorges during different time periods: 40 Ma (Richardson et al., 2010), 18 Ma (Jiao et al., 2021), and 3.6–3.4 Ma (Li et al., 2001). Provenance tracing, conducted through the utilization of borehole samples and surface sediments from the Jianghan Basin, indicates that Yangtze River material started to appear at specific time points: 23 Ma (Yang C Q et al., 2019; Wang P et al., 2014), 3.4–1.7 Ma (Li Y W et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2016; Shao et al., 2012), and 1.2–0.7 Ma (Kang et al., 2021; Wei et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2008; Xiang et al., 2007), respectively. The detrital zircon U-Pb dating of gravel beds in the vicinity of the Yangtze Estuary provides evidence that the formation of the Yangtze River occurred within the time range of 23–10 Ma (Wang et al., 2022; Zheng et al., 2013). However, detrital K-feldspar and muscovite geochemical dating studies indicate that the formation time of the Lower Yangtze River is unlikely to be no earlier than 10 Ma (Sun X L et al., 2021; Zhang Z J et al., 2021). Provenance tracing, conducted through the analysis of boreholes in the Yangtze River Delta, indicates that the formation of the Yangtze River occurred in two distinct phases: 3.2–2.6 Ma (Yu et al., 2020; Jia et al., 2010) and 1.2–1.1 Ma (Liu X B et al., 2018; Yue et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2006). The variations in the results of these studies arise from disparities in the methodologies and locations utilized by the researchers. Consequently, the exact timing of the formation of the Yangtze River still remains unclear.

Based on extensive research and hypotheses related to the source-to-sink framework, scholars have discovered that the sedimentary strata in the Lower Yangtze River provide detailed information about the origin and geological history of the upper and middle reaches of the river (Hao et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2022; Zhang Z J et al., 2021; Zheng et al., 2013). Consequently, these sedimentary records provide valuable insights into the evolutionary history of the entire Yangtze River Basin (Lin et al., 2023b). The detrital zircon U-Pb age dating method has been extensively employed in studying the developmental history of continental rivers, including the Nile (Morag et al., 2021), Amazon (Mapes, 2009), Mississippi (Craddock and Kylander-Clark, 2013), Yellow (Lin et al., 2022a, b; Nie et al., 2015), and Yangtze rivers (Wang et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2012). Several studies have reported an abundance of detrital zircon U-Pb data regarding the Yangtze River Basin (Lin et al., 2022c; Liang et al., 2018; He et al., 2013). These data sets offer a valuable foundation for comparison and aid in the determination of provenance. Therefore, we conducted a U-Pb age analysis of detrital zircons in the Late Cenozoic sedimentary basin of the Lower Yangtze River. This analysis incorporated published paleomagnetic (Yu and Huang, 1996) and paleontological data (Wang P et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2004; RAB, 1988) to assess the timing of deposition for detrital sediments from the Upper and Middle Yangtze River regions in the Lower Yangtze River area. Furthermore, we engage in a systematic discussion regarding the formation age of the Yangtze River based on the published findings in the region. The purpose of this study is to improve our understanding of the relationship between tectonic activity and climate change in the East Asia region.

1 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOMORPHIC SETTINGS

1.1 Yangtze River

The Yangtze River is the largest river in the East Asia, stretching approximately 6 300 km in length. It originates from the eastern Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1a), traverses through the Sichuan Basin and Jianghan Basin, and eventually empties into the East China Sea (Pacific Ocean). The upper reaches of the Yangtze River extend up to Yichang City, while the middle reaches of the river are situated between Yichang City and Hukou City (Figure 1a). The lower reaches of the Yangtze River are located to the east of Hukou City.

During the Mesozoic, South China exhibited a topography characterized by high elevation in the east and low elevation in the west (Wang, 2004). However, the subduction of the Indian Plate beneath the Eurasian Continent in the Cenozoic resulted in the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau (Liu-Zeng et al., 2008). Importantly, this topographic transformation played a crucial role in establishing the geomorphic framework that facilitated the flow of the Yangtze River from west to east (Lin et al., 2023c). The Yangtze River Basin extends between latitudes N25° and N34°. This region is primarily influenced by the South Asian and East Asian monsoons, contributing to its subtropical monsoon climate (Molnar, 2005). The origin of these monsoons can be traced back to the Neogene Period, as supported by studies conducted by Clift et al. (2008a), Guo et al. (2002), and An (2000). The development of the Yangtze River is intricately linked to both tectonic activities and climate changes occurring in East Asia (Lin et al., 2024a; Wang et al., 2022).

1.2 Wangjiang Basin

The Wangjiang Basin is situated in the lower reach of the Yangtze River (Figure 1b). It spans approximately 100 km in length and 30 km in width, covering a total area of about 4 176 km² (Xu et al., 2018; Figure 2a). During the Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic periods, the Wangjiang Basin underwent extensional rifting (Xu et al., 2021, Figure 2b). The subsidence rate of the basin notably increased during this period, leading to the deposition of molasse from the Wanghudun (E₁w) and Doumu (E₁d) formations. These deposits originated from the piedmont of Dabie Shan and Eastern Jiangnan Orogen (RAB, 1988). Following the Eocene, the fault-depression filling of the Wangjiang Basin ceased, marking the onset of the decline stage wherein the dominant sedimentary units were the Pliocene Anqing Formation, along with fluvial and aeolian deposits from the Pleistocene Qijiaji and Xiashu formations (RAB, 1988). A notable unconformity is evident between the Anqing Formation and the underlying stratum, primarily attributed to the tectonic uplift (RAB, 1988).

1.3 Pliocene Gravel Beds in the Lower Yangtze River

During the Late Cenozoic, substantial fluvial sediments have accumulated along the Lower Yangtze River, with notable exposed sections in the cities of Wangjiang, Anqing, Tongling, and Nanjing, progressing from west to east (Figure 2a). Paleomagnetic dating of gravel beds in Huoshan, Xuancheng, Tongling, and Anqing cities (Yu and Huang, 1996; He, 1994), along with the presence of mammal (Prosiphneus sp., RAB, 1988) and plant fossils (RAB, 1988), indicates that the deposition of the Anqing Formation occurred between 3.4 and 2.48 Ma (Figures 3a–3d). When compared to the Anqing Formation gravel beds in the Tongling and Anqing cities, the sedimentary age of Wangjiang gravel beds is exclusively constrained to the Pliocene (Yang Z L et al., 2019; RAB, 1988; Figure 3e). Since the Late Cenozoic, the Nanjing area has witnessed the accumulation of several formations. These include the Dongxuanguan Formation of the Lower Miocene (N₁), the Liuhe Formation (N₁), the Huanggang Formation (N₁) of the Upper Miocene, and the Yuhuatai Formation of the Pliocene (N₂) (Han et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2004). The ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating of the overlying basalt in the gravel strata provides evidence that the Dongxuanguan Formation (N₁), Liuhe Formation (N₁), and Huanggang Formation (N₁) occurred between 23 and 10 Ma (Wang et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2013; Figure 3f). The paleomagnetic dating and analysis of paleontological fossils provide evidence that the Yuhuatai Formation near the Nanjing area was deposited approximately 3.5–3.0 Ma (Wang W M et al., 2014; Han et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2003; He, 1994; Figure 3g). In general, the Pliocene gravel beds are widely distributed in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River.

2 SAMPLING AND METHOD

2.1 Sampling Strategy

The Anqing Formation in the Wangjiang Section has a total thickness ranging from 15 to 30 m and predominantly consists of gravels with a diameter of 4–8 cm (Figure 1b; Figure 4a). These gravels are primarily round or sub-round in shape and exhibit distinctive orientation patterns (Figure 4b). Moreover, the flat surfaces of the gravels tend to have a westward inclination, indicating the direction of paleocurrent flows from west to east (Figures 4c, 4d). The gravel deposits mainly comprise quartzite, chert, and quartz sandstone, with smaller proportions of volcanic rock and limestone. In the lower portion of the Anqing Formation, there is a presence of orangish-yellow gravel with a sandy lens and the mammal fossil Prosiphneus sp. (RAB, 1988; Figure 4e). The middle and upper sections of the formation consist of light-yellow fine sand with cross-bedding features (Figure 4f). Notably, the Anqing Formation displays unconformities both with the underlying Paleocene strata and the overlying Pleistocene strata.

The focus of our study was on the Wangjiang and Anqing sections, which are situated within the Wangjiang Basin (Figure 1b). We collected a total of five samples from the sand layers of the Anqing Formation at both the Wangjiang and Anqing sections. Additionally, two modern fluvial detrital samples were collected from the Wan River, located on the southeastern margin of Dabie Shan, and the Qiupu River, situated on the northern margin of the Eastern Jiangnan Orogen (Figure 1b). Each sample, weighing 3–5 kg, was collected specifically for the purpose of detrital zircon selection. Furthermore, we compiled published detrital zircon U-Pb ages from the Yangtze and Ganjiang rivers within the region (Table 1). We also obtained bedrock and modern river zircon U-Pb ages from Dabie Shan, Eastern Jiangnan Orogen, and Mufu Shan to facilitate a comparative analysis of potential provenance areas. Detailed information regarding the sampling locations and data sources is provided in Table 1.

2.2 Analytical Methods

Zircon grains were separated from the sediments using standard mineral separation techniques, which involved heavy liquids, magnetic separation, and hand picking concentrates. Subsequently, approximately 200 grains were randomly selected from each sample and mounted in epoxy within 1-inch mounting cups. In order to avoid inclusions, fractures, and inherited cores in zircons, the spots for laser ablation were chosen based on cathodoluminescence (CL) images.

Zircon U-Pb dating was performed on Pliocene sand samples and modern fluvial sediments using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at Nanjing Hongchuang Geological Exploration Technology Service Co., Ltd. in Nanjing, China. The laser ablation system was connected to an Agilent 7900 ICPMS instrument from Agilent, USA. The specific tuning parameters can be found in Thompson et al. (2018). The zircons were mounted in epoxy discs, meticulously polished to expose the grains, and then subjected to ultrasonic cleaning in ultrapure water. Prior to analysis, a thorough cleaning was conducted using AR grade methanol. To eliminate possible surface contamination, a pre-ablation procedure was executed for each spot analysis. This involved five laser shots, each approximately 0.3 μm in depth. The actual analysis was carried out using a spot diameter of 30 μm, with a repetition rate of 5 Hz and a fluence of 2 J/cm². Data reduction was performed using the Iolite software package (Paton et al., 2010). Zircon 91500 was used as the primary reference material, while GJ-1 served as the secondary reference material. Each sample analysis included two measurements of 91500 and one measurement of GJ-1 for every 10–12 sample analyses. The sample signals were typically acquired for 35–40 s after a gas background measurement of 20 s. To calibrate the down-hole fractionation, we employed the exponential function as described by Paton et al. (2010). For trace element concentrations, zircon 91500, NIST 610 and ⁹¹Zr were utilized as external reference material and internal standard element, respectively. The ages of the reference materials in the batch were determined to be 1 061.5 ± 3.2 Ma for 91500 (Wiedenbeck et al., 1995) and 604 ± 6 Ma for GJ-1 (Jackson et al., 2004). These measured ages were in good agreement with the reference values, falling within an acceptable uncertainty range.

For U-Pb dating, a random selection of approximately 70–90 zircon grains from each sample was made. Zircon ages showing less than 10% discordance were considered. Age concordia diagrams and age distribution plots were then generated using ISOPLOT 3.0 (Ludwig, 2003) and DensityPlotter (Vermeesch, 2012) software, respectively. The zircon ages younger than 1 000 Ma were determined using ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages, while for ages older than 1 000 Ma, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb ages were utilized. This approach was based on the methodology established by Liu et al. (1992).

3 RESULTS

The majority of the analyzed zircons exhibit shades of gray to light brown coloration. They display euhedral to subhedral shapes and show evidence of oscillatory growth zoning or weak banding, as observed during CL imaging. These characteristics strongly suggest a magmatic origin, which is supported by Figures 5a–5g. Furthermore, the high Th/U ratios observed in these zircons (ranging from 0.01 to 3.32, typically greater than 0.1) further support their magmatic nature, as shown in Figure 5h.

Figure 6 presents U-Pb concordant diagrams for the zircon grains, as well as U-Pb age kernel density estimation spectra for each sample. Sample W1 consisted of 90 zircons, of which 82 yielded concordant analyses (Figure 6a). Notably, six predominant peak ages were identified at 143, 219, 438, 789, 1 840, and 2 473 Ma (Figure 6a′). Similarly, sample W2 comprised 90 zircons, with 83 yielding concordant analyses (Figure 6b). The ages obtained from these analyses ranged from 2 674 to 90 Ma, as shown in Figure 6b′. Three of the 90 analyses of zircons from sample W3 were discordant (Figure 6c). These zircons define seven peak ages at 145, 222, 426, 773, 977, 1 837, and 2 447 Ma (Figure 6c′). The analysis of 90 zircons from sample A1 yielded 85 concordant analyses (Figure 6d). There are five peak ages observed at 221, 423, 770, 1 864, and 2 494 Ma (Figure 6d′). The analysis of 90 zircon grains from sample A3 yielded 89 concordant ages (Figure 6e), showing five significant peak ages at 143, 222, 435, 767, and 1 875 Ma and one minor peak age at 2 438 Ma (Figure 6e′). The 80 detrital zircons grains from sample A5 yielded 71 concordant ages (Figure 6f), with three peak ages: 126, 219, and 786 Ma (Figure 6f′). The analyzed 80 detrital zircons from sample C2 yielded 80 concordant ages (Figure 6g), including the peak ages concentrated at 125 and 793 Ma (Figure 6g′). In sample W3, out of the 90 zircon analyses conducted, three were found to be discordant, as demonstrated in Figure 6c. The remaining zircons yielded concordant ages ranging from 3 245 to 131 Ma. This dataset revealed the presence of seven peak ages at 145, 222, 426, 773, 977, 1 837, and 2 447 Ma (Figure 6c'). Sample A1 consisted of 90 zircon grains, of which 85 exhibited concordant ages. The obtained ages ranged from 2 811 to 134 Ma (Figure 6d). Significant peak ages were identified at 221, 423, 770, 1 864, and 2 494 Ma (Figure 6d'). The analysis of 90 zircon grains from sample A3 yielded 89 concordant ages (Figure 6e). This dataset exhibited five prominent peak ages at 143, 222, 435, 767, and 1 875 Ma, along with an additional minor peak age at 2 438 Ma (Figure 6e'). In sample A5, a total of 80 detrital zircon grains were analyzed, and 71 of them exhibited concordant ages (Figure 6f). The three peak ages observed in this dataset were 126, 219, and 786 Ma, as shown in Figure 6f'. Lastly, the analysis of 80 detrital zircon grains from sample C2 yielded 80 concordant ages (Figure 6g). The significant peak ages identified in this dataset were concentrated at 125 and 793 Ma (Figure 6g').

4 DISCUSSION

4.1 Provenance of Sand Layers in Anqing Formation

The determination of sedimentary material provenance involves comparing detrital zircon U-Pb ages with potential source areas or units that could have contributed sediment to the specific region under investigation (Gehrels, 2014). In the case of the Wangjiang Basin, it is situated adjacent to both the Dabie Shan and Eastern Jiangnan Orogen, as depicted in Figure 1b. Therefore, it is plausible that the Pliocene sediments in the Wangjiang Basin could contain material derived from these neighboring regions, namely the Dabie Shan and Eastern Jiangnan Orogen. The U-Pb ages of detrital zircons found in fluvial sediments within orogenic belts are often considered to be the most reliable representation of the zircon U-Pb age composition of those orogenic belts (e.g., Dickinson and Gehrels, 2003). In the case of the Wangjiang Basin, the Wan River, which originates from the southeastern margin of the Dabie Shan, is the largest river that flows into the Lower Yangtze River. In Figures 7a, 7b, the detrital zircon U-Pb peak age composition of the Wan River is observed to show a strong correlation with that of the Dabie Shan region. Specifically, it displays prominent peaks during the Late Mesozoic (126–134 Ma), Early Mesozoic (212–219 Ma), and Neoproterozoic (786–793 Ma) periods. The Qiupu River, a prominent river in the northern section of the Eastern Jiangnan Orogen, is a tributary that empties into the Lower Yangtze River. Analysis of the detrital zircon U-Pb ages of the Qiupu River has revealed a predominant peak during the Late Mesozoic Period (125 Ma), as well as a minor peak during the Neoproterozoic era (793 Ma, see Figure 7c). These age compositions align with those of the Eastern Jiangnan Orogen, as demonstrated in Figure 7d. Mufu Shan represents the primary orogenic belt found in the western region of the Wangjiang Basin. The Ganjiang River, an essential waterway that passes through Mufu Shan, serves as a significant tributary that converges with the southern bank of the Lower Yangtze River. Notably, both Mufu Shan and the Ganjiang River exhibit similar detrital zircon U-Pb age compositions, featuring three primary peak ages: 147, 413–427, and 772–808 Ma (Figures 7e, 7f). The zircon U-Pb age peak composition of the upper, middle, and lower reaches of the Yangtze River exhibits a remarkable similarity (Figures 7g, 7h, 7i). The Songpan-Ganze Block exhibits five distinct peaks in zircon U-Pb ages: 273, 429, 762, 1 869, and 2 505 Ma (Figure 7j). However, the peak ages in the Late Mesozoic are not statistically significant. Conversely, it is worth noting that these Late Mesozoic peak ages are commonly observed in the Yangtze River Basin (Figures 7g, 7h, 7i). The most prominent peak in zircon U-Pb ages within the Cathaysian Block is concentrated in the Late Mesozoic at 129 Ma (Figure 7k). In contrast to the Wangjiang Section (Figures 7l, 7m, 7n) and the Anqing Section (Figures 7o, 7p), the Mufu Shan and Cathaysian Block exhibit weak peak ages of Paleoproterozoic and Neoarchean. Conversely, the detrital zircon U-Pb age composition of the sediments in the Yangtze River Basin clearly displays prominent peak ages of Paleoproterozoic and Neoarchean (Figures 7g, 7h, 7i). Furthermore, the Yangtze River Basin, as well as the Wangjiang and Anqing sections, share peak ages of Late Mesozoic (129–145 Ma), Early Mesozoic (216–222 Ma), Early Paleozoic (423–435 Ma), and Neoproterozoic (767–789 Ma). Based on the similar U-Pb age compositions of detrital zircons from Pliocene strata in the Wangjiang and Anqing sections, it is reasonable to infer that the detrital sand materials in the Wangjiang Basin during this period predominantly originated from the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River.

In order to visualize the similarities and dissimilarities between the zircon detrital age distributions, the nonmetric multidimensional scaling (MDS) statistical technique was employed for comparison (Vermeesch, 2013). As shown in Figure 8, the MDS plot reveals that Wan River and Dabie Shan, Qiupu River and Eastern Jiangnan Orogen, Ganjiang River, and Mufu Shan are in close proximity to each other, suggesting a connection in terms of provenance. The Cathaysian Block is located at a considerable distance from the Yangtze River Basin and the Wangjiang and Anqing sections. In the Wangjiang and Anqing sections, with the exception of Sample A1, which is in closer proximity to the Songpan-Ganze Block, the rest of the samples exhibit the closest distance to the Yangtze River Basin. This observation further suggests that the detrital sediments in these sections are significantly influenced by the Yangtze River.

4.2 Constraint on the Evolution of the Yangtze River

The Yangtze River, flowing across the Tibetan Plateau and terminating in the Pacific Ocean, is known to have existed during the Late Cenozoic. This claim is substantiated by the following pieces of evidence.

First, our detrital zircon U-Pb dating results demonstrate the presence of sedimentary materials from the Yangtze River in the Wangjiang Basin during the Pliocene (Figures 9a, 9b). Additionally, the Sr-Nd isotopic compositions of the Yuhuatai Formation (N₂) in Nanjing City align with the range of isotopic compositions observed in the modern Yangtze River, providing further confirmation of the stable provenance of the Yangtze River during the Pliocene (Zhang et al., 2019; Figure 9c). Furthermore, investigations into the detrital zircon U-Pb age provenance tracing by Hao et al. (2023), Cheng et al. (2018), and Jia et al. (2010) reveal the repetitive of detrital materials from the Yangtze River in the Yangtze River Delta within the time frame of 3.7–3.2 Ma (Figure 9d). Similarly, Wang et al. (2019) report that sediments in the South Yellow Sea Basin predominantly consist of silicate minerals sourced from the Yangtze River at 3.5 Ma. Similarly, Wang et al. (2019) found that a substantial portion of the sediment composition in the South Yellow Sea Basin consists of silicate minerals that originated from the Yangtze River around 3.5 Ma. Notably, the U-Pb dating of monazite and analysis of heavy mineral assemblage from the Yangtze River Delta indicate a shift in provenance during the Late Pliocene, primarily attributed to the influx of detrital materials from the Yangtze River (Yu et al., 2020; Yue et al., 2019; Fan et al., 2005).

Second, during the Late Pliocene (3.6–3.4 Ma), the Yangtze River actively eroded the Three Gorges, prompting the adjustment of its drainage network, as suggested by Li et al. (2001). This assertion is reinforced by the findings of provenance tracing studies utilizing whole-rock Nd and K-feldspar Pb isotopic compositions, as well as muscovite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar and zircon U-Pb ages from boreholes in the Jianghan Basin (Sun et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2016; Shao et al., 2015; Figure 9e). These investigations establish that the Yangtze River assumed a prominent role as a significant supplier of materials to the Jianghan Basin during the Late Pliocene (3.4–2.7 Ma).

Third, by analyzing topographical and longitudinal river profiles, along with field observations and the paleomagnetic age of the strata, the formation of the Upper Yangtze River has been estimated to have occurred between 4.2 and 3.5 Ma (Zhang et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2006; Li et al., 2005). The analysis of U-Pb data from detrital zircons obtained from the Pilocene Xigeda Formation, located in the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, provides further evidence supporting the occurrence of eastward flow in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River during the Pliocene (4.2–3.0 Ma; Deng et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021; Figure 9f). Therefore, it can be inferred that during the Pliocene, there was a connectedness between the lower, middle, and upper reaches of the Yangtze River.

However, detrital U-Pb results indicate that the sands found in the Miocene gravel layers of the Nanjing area originated from the Yangtze River (Wang et al., 2022; Zheng et al., 2013; Figure 9g). This finding indicates that the current morphology of the Yangtze River closely aligns with its configuration during the Miocene period (23–10 Ma). During this time, the lower reaches of the Yangtze River flowed southward, ultimately reaching the East China Sea (Fu et al., 2021; Zhang J Y et al., 2021; Zhang X C et al., 2017; Figure 10a). Conversely, the muscovite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages (Sun et al., 2021a) and the Pb isotopic compositions of K-feldspar provenance (Zhang Z J et al., 2021) provide evidence for a connection between the Lower Yangtze River and the Upper and Middle Yangtze River ranges spanning from 10 to 3.4 Ma. The presence of heavy and magnetic minerals observed in the borehole from the Subei Basin provides compelling evidence indicating that the formation of the Yangtze River drainage basin took place during the Pliocene Period (4.8–4.2 Ma; Shu et al., 2021; Figure 9h). The dating of clay minerals from the drilling holes suggests that Yangtze River sediments were present in the South Yellow Sea Basin around 3.5 Ma (Zhang et al., 2019; Figure 9i). This implies that the Lower Yangtze River might have had a different channel course during the Early Miocene compared to the Pliocene Yangtze River, possibly due to active channel migration (Wang et al., 2022; Fu et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2010).

During the Pliocene, it is likely that two significant branches were present in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. One of these tributaries flowed in a northerly direction and fed into the Subei Basin and the South Yellow Sea Basin. The other tributary followed a southerly course and extended into the Yangtze River Delta (Figure 10a). However, it has been consistently observed that the primary source of detrital materials in the South Yellow Sea Basin is the Yellow River since the Early Pleistocene (1.7–0.8 Ma; Huang et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2019). The initial marine transgression of the South Yellow Sea Basin during the Quaternary took place between 1.66 and 0.89 Ma (Sun et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2016). In the Pliocene, the northern branch of the Yangtze River, which had previously been flowing into the South Yellow Sea Basin, underwent a gradual abandonment during the Early Pleistocene (Wang et al., 2019). As a result, the main stream of the Yangtze River shifted to the southern branch, which became the dominant pathway (see Figure 10b). This shift ultimately led to the establishment of the current river form of the Yangtze River.

4.3 What Factors Control the Development of the Yangtze River?

The evolution of large rivers is generally attributed to a combination of tectonic and climatic factors (Lin et al., 2025; Jolivet et al., 2021; Liu W M et al., 2018; Liu-Zeng et al., 2008). Crustal deformation plays a pivotal role in generating elevated terrain in a regional context, thereby supplying the potential energy required for the development of rivers (Burbank and Anderson, 2013). Additionally, a humid climate with a robust summer monsoon promotes precipitation, discharge, and the migration of river channels (Leier et al., 2005; Clift et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2001).

The changes in sedimentary facies (Li et al., 2014;Zheng et al., 2000; a, b in Figure 11) as well as the findings from low-temperature thermochronology (Godard et al., 2009; Kirby et al., 2002; Xu and Kamp, 2000; c, d in Figure 11) suggest that the Tibetan Plateau underwent a period of uplift during the Pliocene Epoch (5–3 Ma). Consequently, the uplifted Tibetan Plateau impeded the inflow of moist air from the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean into the interior of the Asian Continent (Sun et al., 2008; Qiang et al., 2001; An, 2000). In addition, the Neo-Tethys ocean receded westward, resulting in the transition of sea-covered regions in Central Asia into terrestrial areas (Sun J M et al., 2021; Popov et al., 2006; e in Figure 11). Against the backdrop of global climate cooling (An et al., 2001; Kukla and Cílek, 1996; Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992), the temperature contrast between the Asian Continent and the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean has intensified, thereby strengthening the South Asian Monsoon (Cai et al., 2020; Prell and Kutzbach, 1997; Prell et al., 1992; f, g, h in Figure 11) and the East Asian Monsoon (Wehausen and Brumsack, 2002; Zheng et al., 2004; i, j in Figure 11). The activation of the fault system in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau (Kirby et al., 2002; Xu and Kamp, 2000; Figure 12a), coupled with the initiation of crustal deformation through clockwise rotation around the eastern Himalayan syntaxis at 4–2 Ma (Wang and Burchfiel, 2000), established the geological conditions for the eastward flow of the Yangtze River (Liu et al., 2019; Kong et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2008). The intensification of the monsoon in South Asia (Figures 12b, 12c) and East Asia (Figure 12d) creates a humid climate that is crucial for the sustainable development of the Yangtze River (Cai et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2004; Wehausen and Brumsack, 2002; Prell et al., 1992). In this case, the Upper Yangtze River drainage system underwent adjustments during the Pliocene (Deng et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021; Kong et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2006, k in Figure 11). Additionally, evidence of corresponding clastic material from the Upper Yangtze River was found in boreholes from the Jianghan Basin (Zhang et al., 2016; l in Figure 11) and the Yangtze River Delta (Jia et al., 2010; m in Figure 11). The Wangjiang, Anqing, Tongling, and Nanjing sections have provided records indicating that the Yangtze River predominantly experienced braided river deposition during the Pliocene Period (Wang et al., 2022; Han et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2004; He, 1994; RAB, 1988). Furthermore, it is worth noting that the fluvial deposition fluxes of the East China Sea continental shelf were significantly accelerated since the Pliocene, compared to the early Cenozoic (Métivier et al., 1999; Figure 12e). This suggests that the transportation capacity of the Yangtze River Basin was robust during this period, which is in line with the increased intensity of physical erosion and silicate weathering in East Asia between 4.0 and 2.5 Ma (Li F L et al., 2022; Zhang J et al., 2019; Zhang P et al., 2013; Wan et al., 2012; Figure 10n). During the Early Pleistocene, detrital materials from the Yellow River were transported into the East China Sea (Li et al., 2024; Huang et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2019). The smaller size of rivers in the Korean Peninsula (Choi et al., 2013) suggests that these detrital materials were primarily transported from the Yangtze River during the Pliocene. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the presence of the Yangtze River during the Pliocene is the result of the combined effects of tectonic uplift in the Tibetan Plateau and the influence of the Asian Monsoon and/or global climate change. Furthermore, the presence of thick and coarse clastic deposits in the Yellow River Basin suggests that the Yellow River began to form during the Pliocene (3.7–3.5 Ma; Li Z Y et al., 2022; Lin et al., 2022a; Guo et al., 2018; Hu et al., 2017; Nie et al., 2015; Pan et al., 2011; o, p, q in Figure 11). During the Pliocene, large rivers originating from the Tibetan Plateau transported a significant amount of detrital material that was deposited in the South China Sea, the bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea (Clift et al., 2004; Métivier et al., 1999; Figure 11). These characteristics suggest that the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, coupled with the influence of the Asian Monsoon, was paramount in the extensive deposition of coarse-grained material and the development of large rivers in East Asia during the Pliocene.

5 CONCLUSION

Detrital zircon U-Pb dating was used to determine the sedimentary provenance of Pliocene gravel layers in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. The findings of our study indicate that the Yangtze River serves as the main source of sand materials in the Pliocene gravel beds located in the Wangjiang and Anqing sections. The emergence of the Yangtze River during the Pliocene can be attributed to the sedimentary response to the tectonic uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and the intensification of the Asian Monsoon.

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Funding

the National Natural Science Foundation of China(42030305)

the National Natural Science Foundation of China(W2411033)

Research Foundation of Chutian Scholars Program of Hubei Province(8210403)