Paleoclimatic Controls on Clay Mineral Distribution in the Early Cretaceous (Barremian): The Wessex Basin, Southeast England

Abstract

This study describes the clay mineralogy of the Lower Cretaceous (Barremian) rocks of the Wessex Basin for paleoenvironmental interpretations. Seventy-four samples were subjected to optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS), and quantitative evaluation of minerals by scanning electron microscopy (QEMSCAN®) techniques. The results revealed an illite-dominated sedimentation in most sections of the basin, with kaolinite, chlorite, smectite and glauconite occurring in subordinate quantities. Inferred paleoclimatic conditions from the clay mineral trends indicates a warm and dry climate, with seasonal precipitation. Kaolinite to illite ratios indicate that more arid climate conditions were prevalent but brief periods of warm and humid conditions were also present. A strong positive correlation between chlorite and tourmaline indicates that excess chlorite may have been contributed from tourmaline-chlorite-schists in a tourmaline-dominated provenance. SEM confirms that most of the clay minerals are detrital in origin but authigenic kaolinite is also present as vermiform and mica-replacive kaolinite which formed during early diagenetic modification from flushing meteoric waters in warm humid climates. This study is significant because it demonstrates the importance of multi-proxy methods for understanding clay minerals within sedimentary basins for interpreting the paleoclimatic conditions of depositional systems.

References

AdamsA, GuilfordC, MacKenzieW. Atlas of Sedimentary Rocks under the Microscope, 1984 Essex, United Kingdom Longman Group UK Ltd.

AkinlotanO O. The Sedimentology of the Ashdown Formation and the Wadhurst Clay Formation, Southeast England: [Dissertation], 2015 Brighton School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton 258

AkinlotanO O. Porosity and Permeability of the English (Lower Cretaceous) Sandstones. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 2016, 127(6): 681-690

AkinlotanO O. Geochemical Analysis for Palaeoenvironmental Interpretations—A Case Study of the English Wealden (Lower Cretaceous, South-East England). Geological Quarterly, 2017, 61(2): 227-238

AkinlotanO O. Mineralogy and Palaeoenvironments: The Weald Basin (Early Cretaceous), Southeast England. The Depositional Record, 2017, 3(2): 187-200

AkinlotanO O. Multi-Proxy Approach to Palaeoenvironmental Modelling: The English Lower Cretaceous Weald Basin. Geological Journal, 2018, 53(1): 316-335

AkinlotanO O. Sideritic Ironstones as Indicators of Depositional Environments in the Weald Basin (Early Cretaceous) SE England. Geological Magazine, 2019, 156(3): 533-546

AkinlotanO O, AdepehinE J, RogersG H, et al. . Provenance, Palaeoclimate and Palaeoenvironments of a Non-Marine Lower Cretaceous Facies: Petrographic Evidence from the Wealden Succession. Sedimentary Geology, 2021, 415: 105848

AkinlotanO O, RogersG H, OkunuwadjeS E. Provenance Evolution of the English Lower Cretaceous Weald Basin and Implications for Palaeogeography of the Northwest European Massifs: Constraints from Heavy Mineral Assemblages. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2021, 127: 104953

AkinlotanO O, HatterS J. Depositional Controls on Diagenetic Evolution of the Lower Cretaceous Wealden Sandstones (Wessex Basin, Southeast England). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2022, 146: 105948

AkinlotanO O, MoghaluO A, HatterS J, et al. . Clay Mineral Formation and Transformation in Non-Marine Environments and Implications for Early Cretaceous Palaeoclimatic Evolution: The Weald Basin, Southeast England. Journal of Palaeogeography, 2022, 11(3): 387-409

AkinlotanO O, RogersG H. Heavy Mineral Constraints on the Provenance Evolution of the English Lower Cretaceous (Wessex Basin). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2021, 127: 104952

AlizaiA, HillierS, CliftP D, et al. . Clay Mineral Variations in Holocene Terrestrial Sediments from the Indus Basin. Quaternary Research, 2012, 77(3): 368-381

AllenP. Wealden Detrital Tourmaline: Implications for Northwestern Europe. Journal of the Geological Society, 1972, 128(3): 273-294

AllenP. Wealden of the Weald: A New Model. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1975, 86(4): 389-437

AllenP. Pursuit of Wealden Models. Journal of the Geological Society, 1981, 138(4): 375-405

AllenP. Wealden Research—Ways Ahead. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1989, 100(4): 529-564

AllenP. Provenance Research: Torridonian and Wealden. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 1991, 57(1): 13-21

AllenP, AlvinK L, AndrewsJ E, et al. . Purbeck-Wealden (Early Cretaceous) Climates. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1998, 109(3): 197-236

AllenP, WimbledonW A. Correlation of NW European Purbeck-Wealden (Nonmarine Lower Cretaceous) as Seen from the English Type-Areas. Cretaceous Research, 1991, 12(5): 511-526

BougeaultC, PellenardP, DeconinckJ F, et al. . Climatic and Palaeoceanographic Changes during the Pliensbachian (Early Jurassic) Inferred from Clay Mineralogy and Stable Isotope (C-O) Geochemistry (NW Europe). Global and Planetary Change, 2017, 149: 139-152

British Geological Survey. Isle of Wight (B&S) Special Sheet E330, 331, 2014 344-345

ChadwickR A. Extension Tectonics in the Wessex Basin, Southern England. Journal of the Geological Society, 1986, 143(3): 465-488

ChamleyH. Clay Formation through Weathering. Clay Sedimentology, 1989 Berlin, Heidelberg Springer 21-50

ChenS, WangH, WeiJ, et al. . Sedimentation of the Lower Cretaceous Xiagou Formation and Its Response to Regional Tectonics in the Qingxi Sag, Jiuquan Basin, NW China. Cretaceous Research, 2014, 47: 72-86

DaleyB, StewartD J. Week-End Field Meeting: The Wealden Group in the Isle of Wight 17–19 June 1977. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1979, 90(1/2): 51-54

De SegonzacG D. The Transformation of Clay Minerals during Diagenesis and Low-Grade Metamorphism: A Review. Sedimentology, 1970, 15(3/4): 281-346

DudekT. Clay Minerals as Palaeoenvironmental Indicators in the Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) Ore-Bearing Clays from Gnaszyn, Kraków-Silesia Homocline. Acta Geologica Polonica, 2012, 62(3): 297-305

EberlD D. Clay Mineral Formation and Transformation in Rocks and Soils. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 1984, 311(1517): 241-257

EmeryD, MyersK J, YoungR. Ancient Subaerial Exposure and Freshwater Leaching in Sandstones. Geology, 1990, 18(12): 1178-1181

FandrichR, GuY, BurrowsD, et al. . Modern SEM-Based Mineral Liberation Analysis. International Journal of Mineral Processing, 2007, 84(1/2/3/4): 310-320

FangQ, HongH L, ZhaoL L, et al. . Tectonic Uplift-Influenced Monsoonal Changes Promoted Hominin Occupation of the Luonan Basin: Insights from a Loess-Paleosol Sequence, Eastern Qinling Mountains, Central China. Quaternary Science Reviews, 2017, 169: 312-329

FerreiraN N, FerreiraE P, RamosR R C, et al. . Palynological and Sedimentary Analysis of the Igarapé Ipiranga and Querru 1 Outcrops of the Itapecuru Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Parnaíba Basin), Brazil. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 2016, 66: 15-31

FöllmiK B. Early Cretaceous Life, Climate and Anoxia. Cretaceous Research, 2012, 35: 230-257

GarridoA C, SalgadoL. Taphonomy and Depositional Environment of a Lower Cretaceous Monospecific Dinosaur Bone Assemblage (Puesto Quiroga Member, Lohan Cura Formation), Neuquén Province, Argentina. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 2015, 61: 53-61

GrewE S, SandifordM. A Staurolite-Talc Assemblage in Tourmaline-Phlogopite-Chlorite Schist from Northern Victoria Land, Antarctica, and Its Petrogenetic Significance. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 1984, 87(4): 337-350

HallamA. Continental Humid and Arid Zones during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 1984, 47(3/4): 195-223

HallamA, GroseJ A, RuffellA H. Palaeoclimatic Significance of Changes in Clay Mineralogy across the Jurassic–Cretaceous Boundary in England and France. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 1991, 81(3/4): 173-187

HarrazH Z, El-SharkawyM F. Origin of Tourmaline in the Metamorphosed Sikait Pelitic Belt, South Eastern Desert, Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 2001, 33(2): 391-416

HeinJ R, DowlingJ S, SchuetzeA, et al. . Clay-Mineral Suites, Sources, and Inferred Dispersal Routes: Southern California Continental Shelf. Marine Environmental Research, 2003, 56(1/2): 79-102

HesselboS P, DeconinckJ F, HuggettJ M, et al. . Late Jurassic Palaeoclimatic Change from Clay Mineralogy and Gamma-Ray Spectrometry of the Kimmeridge Clay, Dorset, UK. Journal of the Geological Society, 2009, 166(6): 1123-1133

HopsonP M, WilkinsonI, WoodsM. A Stratigraphical Framework for the Lower Cretaceous of England, 2008 77

HorneD J. A Revised Ostracod Biostratigraphy for the Purbeck-Wealden of England. Cretaceous Research, 1995, 16(6): 639-663

JeansC V. Clay Mineralogy of the Cretaceous Strata of the British Isles. Clay Minerals, 2006, 41(1): 47-150

JeansC V, MitchellJ G, FisherM J, et al. . Age, Origin and Climatic Signal of English Mesozoic Clays Based on K/Ar Signatures. Clay Minerals, 2001, 36(4): 515-539

JuW, SunW F. Tectonic Fractures in the Lower Cretaceous Xiagou Formation of Qingxi Oilfield, Jiuxi Basin, NW China. Part Two: Numerical Simulation of Tectonic Stress Field and Prediction of Tectonic Fractures. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 2016, 146: 626-636

KalmV E, RutterN W, RokoshC D. Clay Minerals and Their Paleoenvironmental Interpretation in the Baoji Loess Section, Southern Loess Plateau, China. CATENA, 1996, 27(1): 49-61

KarnerG D, LakeS D, DeweyJ F. The Thermal and Mechanical Development of the Wessex Basin, Southern England. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 1987, 28(1): 517-536

KempS, WagnerD, InghamM. The Mineralogy, Surface Area and Geochemistry of Samples from the Wealden Group of Southern England, 2012 34 IR/10/079

KimJ, DongH L, SeabaughJ, et al. . Role of Microbes in the Smectite-to-Illite Reaction. Science, 2004, 303(5659): 830-832

KnappettC, PirrieD, PowerM R, et al. . Mineralogical Analysis and Provenancing of Ancient Ceramics Using Automated SEM-EDS Analysis (QEMSCAN®): A Pilot Study on LB I Pottery from Akrotiri, Thera. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2011, 38(2): 219-232

LakeS D, KarnerG D. The Structure and Evolution of the Wessex Basin, Southern England: An Example of Inversion Tectonics. Tectonophysics, 1987, 137(1): 347 358–356, 378

LansonB, BeaufortD, BergerG, et al. . Authigenic Kaolin and Illitic Minerals during Burial Diagenesis of Sandstones: A Review. Clay Minerals, 2002, 37: 1-22

MillesonM, MyersT S, TaborN J. Permo-Carboniferous Paleoclimate of the Congo Basin: Evidence from Lithostratigraphy, Clay Mineralogy, and Stable Isotope Geochemistry. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2016, 441: 226-240

MooreD M, ReynoldsR C Jr.. X-Ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals, 1989 Oxford Oxford University Press

NieJ S, PengW B. Automated SEM-EDS Heavy Mineral Analysis Reveals no Provenance Shift between Glacial Loess and Interglacial Paleosol on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Aeolian Research, 2014, 13: 71-75

NieJ S, PengW B, PfaffK, et al. . Controlling Factors on Heavy Mineral Assemblages in Chinese Loess and Red Clay. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2013, 381/382: 110-118

PennS J, SweetmanS C, MartillD M, et al. . The Wessex Formation (Wealden Group, Lower Cretaceous) of Swanage Bay, Southern England. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 2020, 131: 679-698

PirrieD, ButcherA R, PowerM R, et al. . Rapid Quantitative Mineral and Phase Analysis Using Automated Scanning Electron Microscopy (QemSCAN); Potential Applications in Forensic Geoscience. Geological Society of London Special Publications, 2004, 232: 123-136

PirrieD, PowerM R, RollinsonG K, et al. . Automated SEMEDS (QEMSCAN®) Mineral Analysis in Forensic Soil Investigations: Testing Instrumental Reproducibility. Criminal and Environmental Soil Forensics, 2009 Dordrecht Springer 411-430

ProustJ N, DeconinckJ F, GeyssantJ R, et al. . Sequence Analytical Approach to the Upper Kimmeridgian-Lower Tithonian Storm-Dominated Ramp Deposits of the Boulonnais (Northern France). A Landward Time-Equivalent to Offshore Marine Source Rocks. Geologische Rundschau, 1995, 84(2): 255-271

RadleyJ D. A Foraminiferal Datum in the Vectis Formation (Wealden Group, Lower Cretaceous) of the Isle of Wight, Southern England. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1994, 105(2): 91-97

RadleyJ D. Stratigraphy, Palaeontology and Palaeoenvironment of the Wessex Formation (Wealden Group, Lower Cretaceous) at Yaverland, Isle of Wight, Southern England. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1994, 105(3): 199-208

RadleyJ D, AllenP. The Southern English Wealden (Non-Marine Lower Cretaceous): Overview of Palaeoenvironments and Palaeoecology. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 2012, 123(2): 382-385

RadleyJ D, AllenP. The Wealden (Non-Marine Lower Cretaceous) of the Weald Sub-Basin, Southern England. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 2012, 123(2): 245-318

RadleyJ D, BarkerM J. Palaeoenvironmental Analysis of Shell Beds in the Wealden Group (Lower Cretaceous) of the Isle of Wight, Southern England: An Initial Account. Cretaceous Research, 1998, 19(3/4): 489-504

RawsonP F. DuffP M D, SmithA J. The Cretaceous. Geology of England and Wales, 1992 London The Geological Society 355-388

RegoE S, JovaneL, HeinJ R, et al. . Mineralogical Evidence for Warm and Dry Climatic Conditions in the Neo-Tethys (Eastern Turkey) during the Middle Eocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2018, 501: 45-57

ReynoldsR C. Principles of Powder Diffraction. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 1989, 20: 1-17

Romero-Guerrero, L. M., Moreno-Tovar, R., Arenas-Flores, A., et al., 2018. Chemical, Mineralogical, and Refractory Characterization of Kaolin in the Regions of Huayacocotla-Alumbres, Mexico. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8156812

RuffellA. Sea-Level Events during the Early Cretaceous in Western Europe. Cretaceous Research, 1991, 12(5): 527-551

RuffellA, McKinleyJ M, WordenR H. Comparison of Clay Mineral Stratigraphy to other Proxy Palaeoclimate Indicators in the Mesozoic of NW Europe. Philosophical Transactions Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, 2002, 360(1793): 675-693

RuffellA H, BattenD J. The Barremian-Aptian Arid Phase in Western Europe. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 1990, 80(3/4): 197-212

SimpsonI R, GravestockM, HamD, et al. . Notes and Cross-Sections Illustrating Inversion Tectonics in the Wessex Basin. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 1989, 44: 123-129

SingerA. The Paleoclimatic Interpretation of Clay Minerals in Soils and Weathering Profiles. Earth-Science Reviews, 1980, 15(4): 303-326

SingerA. The Paleoclimatic Interpretation of Clay Minerals in Sediments—A Review. Earth-Science Reviews, 1984, 21(4): 251-293

SladenC P. The Clay Mineralogy of Pre-Aptian Cretaceous Sediments in NW Europe, 1980 United Kingdom University of Reading 365

SladenC P. Trends in Early Cretaceous Clay Mineralogy in NW Europe. Zitteliana, 1983, 10: 57

SladenC P, BattenD J. Source-Area Environments of Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Sediments in Southeast England. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1984, 95(2): 149-163

SongY G, WangQ S, AnZ S, et al. . Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum: Clay Mineral Evidence from the Red Clay Succession, Longzhong Basin, Northern China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2018, 512: 46-55

StewartD J. The sedimentology of the Wealden Group of the Isle of Wight, 1978 United Kingdom Department of Geology. Portsmouth Polytechnic 347

StewartD J. ElliottT. A Field Guide to the Wealden Group of the Hastings Area and the Isle of Wight. Field Guides to Modern and Ancient Fluvial Systems in Britain and Spain, 1981 3.1-3.32

StewartD J. A Meander-Belt Sandstone of the Lower Cretaceous of Southern England. Sedimentology, 1981, 28: 1-20

StewartD J. CollinsonJ D, LewinJ. Possible Suspended-Load Channel Deposits from the Wealden Group (Lower Cretaceous) of Southern England. Modern and Ancient Fluvial Systems, 1983 Oxford International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publications, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 369-384

StewartD J, RuffellA, WachG, et al. . Lagoonal Sedimentation and Fluctuating Salinities in the Vectis Formation (Wealden Group, Lower Cretaceous) of the Isle of Wight, Southern England. Sedimentary Geology, 1991, 72(1/2): 117-134

StoneleyR. The Structural Development of the Wessex Basin. Journal of the Geological Society, 1982, 139(4): 543-554

TaylorK G G. Pedogenic Clay-Mineral Transformation in the Weald Basin: Implications for Early Cretaceous Hinterland Climate Reconstructions. Cretaceous Research, 1996, 17: 103-108

ThiryM. Palaeoclimatic Interpretation of Clay Minerals in Marine Deposits: An Outlook from the Continental Origin. Earth Science Reviews, 2000, 49: 201-221

TrumbullR B, KrienitzM S, GrundmannG, et al. . Tourmaline Geochemistry and δ¹¹B Variations as a Guide to Fluid-Rock Interaction in the Habachtal Emerald Deposit, Tauern Window, Austria. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 2009, 157(3): 411-427

TuckerM E. Sedimentary Petrology: An Introduction to the Origin of Sedimentary Rocks, 2001 Oxford Blackwell Science

Ulmer-ScholleD S, ScholleP A, SchieberJ, et al. . A Color Guide to the Petrography of Sandstones, Siltstones, Shales and Associated Rocks, 2014

WatsonJ, AlvinK L. An English Wealden Floral List, with Comments on Possible Environmental Indicators. Cretaceous Research, 1996, 17(1): 5-26

WordenR H, MoradS. WordenR H, MoradS. Clay Minerals in Sandstones: Controls on Formation, Distribution and Evolution. Clay Minerals in Sandstones, 2003 1-42

ZhangX J, PeaseV, OmmaJ, et al. . Provenance of Late Carboniferous to Jurassic Sandstones for Southern Taimyr, Arctic Russia: A Comparison of Heavy Mineral Analysis by Optical and QEMSCAN Methods. Sedimentary Geology, 2015, 329: 166-176

ZuoF F, HeimhoferU, HuckS, et al. . Climatic Fluctuations and Seasonality during the Kimmeridgian (Late Jurassic): Stable Isotope and Clay Mineralogical Data from the Lower Saxony Basin, Northern Germany. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2019, 517: 1-15