Comparative New Insight into the Tectonic Origin of Folds and Thrust Faults of an Extensional Basin: Söke-Kuşadasi Basin, Aegean, Western Turkey

Abstract

The Aegean area of the western Anatolian region of Turkey, controlled by the low-angle detachment normal fault system, forms an extensional province, the West Anatolian Extensional Province (WAEP). The tectonic deformation which occurred in the Miocene Period, including the Plio-Quaternary Period has created different structures in both the basement rocks and intra-basin deposits of the crust. One of these structures, high-angle normal faults, controls the supradetachment Söke-Kuşadasi Basin (SKB). Within this basin, there are folds with different axes and thrust faults with a north-northwest-northeast (N, NW, NE) trend. These folds and thrust faults in the SKB deformed the sedimentary structures of intra-basin deposits. The folds and thrust faults, which caused the rotation of beddings and imbrications in the SKB, are mainly associated with the tectonic process of the low angle detachment normal fault, which affected the SKB and the Aegean part of western Anatolia. In the SKB, during the process of extensional deformation associated with primary low angle detachment normal faulting, the ramp-flat and inversion geometry observed in the basement rocks and basin deposits of the crust caused folds and thrust faults in only intra-basin deposits. In the WAEP, it is determined for the first time that the folds and thrust faults causing limited shortening deformed the Plio-Quaternary sediments.

Keywords

low angle detachment normal fault / high angle normal fault / fold / thrust fault / bedding / extensional supradetachment basin

References

Akgün F, Akyol E. Palynostratigraphy of the Coal-Bearing Neogene Deposits Graben in Büyük Menderes Western Anatolia. Geobios, 1999, 32(3): 367-383.

Allmendinger R W, Cardozo N, Fisher D. Structural Geology Algorithms: Vectors and Tensors, 2012, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 302

Beccaletto L, Steiner C. Evidence of Two-Stage Extensional Tectonics from the Northern Edge of the Edremit Graben, NW Turkey. Geodinamica Acta, 2005, 18(3/4): 283-297.

Becker-Platen J D. Lithostratigraphische Unterschungen im Kanozoikum Südwest Anatoliens (Türkei)—Kanozoikum und Braunkohlen der Turkei. Beihefte zum Geologischen Jahrbuch, 1970, 97: 244 German Geological Survey BGR Hannover

Bozkurt E. Timing of Extension on the Buyuk Menderes Graben, Western Turkey, and Its Tectonic Implications. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 2000, 1 385-403. In: Bozkurt, E., Winchester, J. A., Piper, J. D. A., eds., Tectonics and Magmatism in Turkey and the Surrounding Area

Bozkurt E. Neotectonics of Turkey—A Synthesis. Geodinamica Acta, 2001, 14(1/2/3): 3-30.

Bozkurt E. Origin of NE-Trending Basins in Western Turkey. Geodinamica Acta, 2003, 16(2–6): 61-81.

Bozkurt E, Mittwede S K. Introduction: Evolution of Continental Extensional Tectonics of Western Turkey. Geodinamica Acta, 2005, 18(3/4): 153-165.

Bozkurt E, Park R G. Evolution of a Mid-Tertiary Extensional Shear Zone in the Southern Menderes Massif, Western Turkey. Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France, 1997, 168(1): 3-14

Bozkurt E, Rojay B. Episodic, Two-Stage Neogene Extension and Short-Term Intervening Compression in Western Turkey: Field Evidence from the Kiraz Basin and Bozdag Horst. Geodinamica Acta, 2005, 18(3/4): 299-316.

Bozkurt E, Sözbilir H. Tectonic Evolution of the Gediz Graben: Field Evidence for an Episodic, Two-Stage Extension in Western Turkey. Geological Magazine, 2004, 141(1): 63-79.

Bozkurt E, Sözbilir H. Evolution of the Large-Scale Active Manisa Fault, Southwest Turkey: Implications on Fault Development and Regional Tectonics. Geodinamica Acta, 2006, 19(6): 427-453.

Brandes C, Tanner D C. Fault-Related Folding: A Review of Kinematic Models and Their Application. Earth-Science Reviews, 2014, 1: 352-370.

Burton D, Wood L J. Seismic Geomorphology and Tectonostrati-graphic Fill of Half Grabens, West Natuna Basin, Indonesia. AAPG Bulletin, 2010, 94(11): 1695-1712.

Çiftçi N B, Bozkurt E. Evolution of the Miocene Sedimentary Fill of the Gediz Graben, SW Turkey. Sedimentary Geology, 2009, 216(3/4): 49-79.

Çiftçi N B, Bozkurt E. Structural Evolution of the Gediz Graben, SW Turkey: Temporal and Spatial Variation of the Graben Basin. Basin Research, 2010, 1: 846-873.

Dahlen F A. Noncohesive Critical Coulomb Wedges: An Exact Solution. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 1984, 89(B12): 10125-10133.

Delvaux D, Sperner B. New Aspects of Tectonic Stress Inversion with Reference to the TENSOR Program. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 2003, 212(1): 75-100.

Dewey J F, Şengör A M C. Aegean and Surrounding Regions: Complex Multiplate and Continuum Tectonics in a Convergent Zone. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 1979, 90(1): 84-92.

Dogan B, Karakaş A. Geometry of Co-Seismic Surface Ruptures and Tectonic Meaning of the 23 October 2011 M _w 7.1 Van Earthquake (East Anatolian Region, Turkey). Journal of Structural Geology, 2013, 1: 99-114.

Emre T, Sözbilir H. Tectonic Evolution of the Kiraz Basin, Kucuk Menderes Graben: Evidence for Compression/Uplift-Related Basin Formation Overprinted by Extensional Tectonics in West Anatolia. Turkish Journal of Earth Science, 2007, 1: 441-470.

Ercan T, Akat U, Günay E, . Söke-Selçuk-Kuşadasi Dolaylarinin Jeolojisi ve Volkanik Kayaçlarin Petrokimyasal Özellikleri. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Dergisi, 1986, 105/1: 15-38.

Ersoy E Y, Helvaci C. Geochemistry and Petrology of the Lower Miocene Bimodal Volcanic Units in the Tunçbilek-Domaniç Basin, Western Anatolia. International Geology Review, 2016, 58(10): 1234-1252.

Ersoy Y E, Helvaci C, Sözbilir H. Tectono-Stratigraphic Evolution of the NE-SW-Trending Superimposed Selendi Basin: Implications for Late Cenozoic Crustal Extension in Western Anatolia, Turkey. Tectonophysics, 2010, 488(1/2/3/4): 210-232.

Frehner M. The Neutral Lines in Buckle Folds. Journal of Structural Geology, 2011, 33(10): 1501-1508.

Friederich W, Brüstle A, Küperkoch L, . Focal Mechanisms in the Southern Aegean from Temporary Seismic Networks—Implications for the Regional Stress Field and Ongoing Deformation Processes. Solid Earth, 2014, 5(1): 275-297.

Glodny J, Hetzel R. Precise U-Pb Ages of Syn-Extensional Miocene Intrusions in the Central Menderes Massif, Western Turkey. Geological Magazine, 2006, 144(2): 235-246.

Görür N, Sengör A M C, Sakinü M, . Rift Formation in the Gökova Region, Southwest Anatolia: Implications for the Opening of the Aegean Sea. Geological Magazine, 1995, 132(6): 637-650.

Guimerà J, Alonso Á, Mas J R. Inversion of an Extensional-Ramp Basin by a Newly Formed Thrust: The Cameros Basin (N. Spain). Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 1995, 88(1): 433-453.

Gürer Ö F F, Bozcu M, Yilmaz K, . Neogene Basin Development around Söke-Kuşadasi (Western Anatolia) and Its Bearing on Tectonic Development of the Aegean Region. Geodinamica Acta, 2001, 14(1/2/3): 57-69.

Gürer Ö F F, Sarica-Filoreau N, Özburan M, . Progressive Development of the Büyük Menderes Graben Based on New Data, Western Turkey. Geological Magazine, 2009, 146(5): 652-673.

Hetzel R, Zwingmann H, Mulch A, . Spatiotemporal Evolution of Brittle Normal Faulting and Fluid Infiltration in Detachment Fault Systems: A Case Study from the Menderes Massif, Western Turkey. Tectonics, 2013, 32(3): 364-376.

Irmak T S, Doğan B, Karakaş A. Source Mechanism of the 23 October, 2011, Van (Turkey) Earthquake (M _w=7.1) and Aftershocks with Its Tectonic Implications. Earth, Planets and Space, 2012, 64(11): 991-1003.

Irrlitz W. Lihostratigraphie und Tektonische Entwicklung des Neogens in Nordostanatolien. Beih. Geol, Jb, 1972, 1: 1-111.

Işik S E, Konca A Ö, Karabulut H. The Seismic Interactions and Spatiotemporal Evolution of Seismicity Following the October 23, 2011 M _w 7.1 Van, Eastern Anatolia, Earthquake. Tectonophysics, 2017, 1: 8-18.

Işik V, Seyítoğlu G, Çemen I. Ductile-Brittle Transition along the Alaşehir Detachment Fault and Its Structural Relationship with the Simav Detachment Fault, Menderes Massif, Western Turkey. Tectonophysics, 2003, 374(1/2): 1-18.

Işik, V., Seyitooğlu, G., Cemen, I., 2003b. Extensional Structures of the Menderes Core Complex, Western Turkey. GSA, Annual Meeting Abstracts with Programs, V. 35, Seattle, USA. 27–28

Işik V, Tekeli O. Late Orogenic Crustal Extension in the Northern Menderes Massif (Western Turkey): Evidence for Metamorphic Core Complex Formation. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 2001, 89(4): 757-765.

Jackson J, McKenzie D. Rates of Active Deformation in the Aegean Sea and Surrounding Regions. Basin Research, 1988, 1(3): 121-128.

Jagger L J, McClay K R. Analogue Modelling of Inverted Domino-Style Basement Fault Systems. Basin Research, 2018, 30(2): 363-381.

Janecke S U, Vandenburg C J, Blankenau J J. Geometry, Mechanisms and Significance of Extensional Folds from Examples in the Rocky Mountain Basin and Range Province, U.S.A. Journal of Structural Geology, 1998, 20(7): 841-856.

Johnson H, Dore A G, Gatliff R W, . The Nature and Origin of Compression in Passive Margins, 2008, Bath: Geological Society Publishing House

Jolivet L, Brun J P. Cenozoic Geodynamic Evolution of the Aegean. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 2010, 99(1): 109-138.

Jolivet L, Labrousse L, Agard P, . Rifting and Shallow-Dipping Detachments, Clues from the Corinth Rift and the Aegean. Tectonophysics, 2010, 483(3/4): 287-304.

Kaya A L. The Effects of Extensional Structures on the Heat Transport Mechanism: An Example from the Ortakçı Geothermal Field (Büyük Menderes Graben, SW Turkey). Journal of African Earth Sciences, 2015, 1: 74-88.

Kaya O, Ünay G, Eichhorn S, . Halitpaşa Transpressive Zone: Implications for an Early Pliocene Compressional Phase in Central Western Anatolia, Turkey. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 2004, 1: 1-13.

Koçyiğit A, Yusufoğlu H, Bozkurt E. Evidence from the Gediz Graben for Episodic Two-Stage Extension in Western Turkey. Journal of the Geological Society, 1999, 156(3): 605-616.

Kurt H, Demirbag E, Kuşçu I. Investigation of the Submarine Active Tectonism in the Gulf of Gökova, Southwest Anatolia-Southeast Aegean Sea, by Multi-Channel Seismic Reflection Data. Tectonophysics, 1999, 305(4): 477-496.

McClay K R. Recent Advances in Analogue Modelling: Uses in Section Interpretation and Validation. Geological Society London Special Publication, 1996, 99(1): 201-225. In: Buchanan, P. G., Nieuwland, D. A., eds., Modern Developments in Structural Interpretation, Validation and Modelling

McClay K R, Buchanan P G. McClay K R. Thrust Faults in Inverted Extensional Basins. Thrust Tectonics, 1992, Netherlands: Springer, 93-104.

McClay K R, Ellis P G. Geometries of Extensional Fault Systems Developed in Model Experiments. Geology, 1987, 15(4): 341-344.

McKenzie D. Active Tectonics of the Alpine—Himalayan Belt: The Aegean Sea and Surrounding Regions. Geophysical Journal International, 1978, 55(1): 217-254.

Öner Z, Dilek Y. Supradetachment Basin Evolution during Continental Extension: The Aegean Province of Western Anatolia, Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 2011, 123(11/12): 2115-2141.

Peacock D C P, Knipe R J, Sanderson D J. Glossary of Normal Faults. Journal of Structural Geology, 2000, 22(3): 291-305.

Purvis M, Robertson A. Sedimentation of the Neogene-Recent Alasehir (Gediz) Continental Graben System Used to Test Alternative Tectonic Models for Western (Aegean) Turkey. Sedimentary Geology, 2005, 173(1/2/3/4): 373-408.

Ramsay J G. Development of Chevron Folds. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 1974, 85(11): 1741-1754.

Ring U, Will T, Glodny J, . Early Exhumation of High-Pressure Rocks in Extrusion Wedges: Cycladic Blueschist Unit in the Eastern Aegean, Greece, and Turkey. Tectonics, 2007, 26(2): TC2001

Rotevatn A, Jackson C A L. 3D Structure and Evolution of Folds during Normal Fault Dip Linkage. Journal of the Geological Society, 2014, 171 6 821-829.

Sarica N. The Plio-Pleistocene Age of Büyük Menderes and Gediz Grabens and Their Tectonic Significance on N-S Extensional Tectonics in West Anatolia: Mammalian Evidence from the Continental Deposits. Geological Journal, 2000, 35(1): 1-24.

Schlische R W. Geometry and Origin of Fault-Related Folds in Extensional Settings. AAPG Bulletin, 1995, 79(11): 1661-1678

Şen S, Seyítoğlu G. Magnetostratigraphy of Early-Middle Miocene Deposits from East-West Trending Alaşehir and Büyük Menderes Grabens in Western Turkey, and Its Tectonic Implications. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 2009, 311(1): 321-342.

Şengör A M C. Cross-Faults and Differential Stretching of Hanging Walls in Regions of Low-Angle Normal Faulting: Examples from Western Turkey. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 1987, 28(1): 575-589.

Şengör A M C, Bozkurt E. Layer-Parallel Shortening and Related Structures in Zones Undergoing Active Regional Horizontal Extension. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 2013, 102(1): 101-119.

Şengör A M C, Görür N, Şaroğlu F. Strike-Slip Deformation, Basin Formation and Sedimentation: Strike-Slip Faulting and Related Basin Formation in Zones of Tectonic Escape: Turkey as a Case Study. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogist Special Publication, 1985, 1: 277-264. In: Biddle, K. T., Christie-Blick, N., eds., Strike Slip Faulting and Basin Formation

Seyitoğlu G, Alçiçek C M, Işik V, . The Stratigraphical Position of Kemiklitepe Fossil Locality (Eşme, Uşsak) Revised: Implications for the Late Cenozoic Sedimentary Basin Development and Extensional Tectonics in Western Turkey. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie-Abhandlungen, 2009, 251(1): 1-15.

Seyítoğlu G, Işik V. Late Cenozoic Extensional Tectonics in Western Anatolia: Exhumation of the Menderes Core Complex and Formation of Related Basins. Bulletin of The Mineral Research and Exploration, 2015, 1: 47-106.

Seyítoğlu G, Scott B C. The Cause of N-S Extensional Tectonics in Western Turkey: Tectonic Escape vs. Back-Arc Spreading vs. Orogenic Collapse. Journal of Geodynamics, 1996, 22(1/2): 145-153.

Seyitoğlu G, Scott B. Late Cenozoic Crustal Extension and Basin Formation in West Turkey. Geological Magazine, 1991, 128(2): 155-166.

Seyítoğlu G, Tekell O, Çemen I, . The Role of the Flexural Rotation/Rolling Hinge Model in the Tectonic Evolution of the Alaşehir Graben, Western Turkey. Geological Magazine, 2002, 139(1): 15-26.

Seyitoğlu V G, Işik V. Meaning of the Küçuk Menderes Graben in the Tectonic Framework of the Central Menderes Metamorphic Core Complex (Western Turkey). Geologica Acta, 2009, 7(3): 323-332

Sözbilir H. Geometry and Origin of Folding in the Neogene Sediments of the Gediz Graben, Western Anatolia, Turkey. Geodinamica Acta, 2002, 15(5/6): 277-288.

Sözbilir H, Sari B, Uzel B, . Tectonic Implications of Transtensional Supradetachment Basin Development in an Extension-Parallel Transfer Zone: The Kocaçay Basin, Western Anatolia, Turkey. Basin Research, 2011, 23(4): 423-448.

Spencer J E, Reynolds S J, Scott R J, . Shortening in the Upper Plate of the Buckskin-Rawhide Extensional Detachment Fault, Southwestern U.S., and Implications for Stress Conditions during Extension. Tectonics, 2016, 35(12): 3119-3136.

Sümer Ö, Inci U, Sözbilir H. Tectonic Evolution of the Söke Basin: Extension-Dominated Transtensional Basin Formation in Western Part of the Büyük Menderes Graben, Western Anatolia, Turkey. Journal of Geodynamics, 2013, 1: 148-175.

Taymaz T, Jackson J, McKenzie D. Active Tectonics of the North and Central Aegean Sea. Geophysical Journal International, 1991, 106(2): 433-490.

Turner J P, Williams G A. Sedimentary Basin Inversion and IntraPlate Shortening. Earth-Science Reviews, 2004, 65(3/4): 277-304.

Ünay E, Göktaş F. Söke Çevresi (Aydin) Geç Erken Miyosen ve Kuvaterner Yaşli Küçük Memelileri: Ön Sonuçlar. Türkiye Jeoloji Bülteni, 1999, 1: 99-113. (in Turkish)

Ünay E, Göktaş F, Hakyemez H Y, . Büyük Menderes Grabeni’nin Kuzey Kenarindaki Çökellerin Arvicolidae (Rodentia, Mammalia) Faunasina Dayali Olarak Yaşlandirilmasi. Türkiye Jeoloji Bülteni, 1995, 1: 75-80. (in Turkish)

Uzel B, Langereis C G, Kaymakci N, . Paleomagnetic Evidence for an Inverse Rotation History of Western Anatolia during the Exhumation of Menderes Core Complex. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2015, 1: 108-125.

Uzel B, Sözbilir H, Özkaymak Ç, . Structural Evidence for Strike-Slip Deformation in the Izmir-Balikesir Transfer Zone and Consequences for Late Cenozoic Evolution of Western Anatolia (Turkey). Journal of Geodynamics, 2013, 1: 94-116.

Van Norman E R, Nelson P M, Parker D C. Curriculum-Based Measurement of Reading Decision Rules: Strategies to Improve the Accuracy of Treatment Recommendations. School Psychology Review, 2018, 47(4): 333-344.

Williamson K. Geothermal Prospection of the Western Anatolia Report, 1982, Santa Rosa, CA: Union Oil Company of California

Xiao H B, Dahlen F A, Suppe J. Mechanics of Extensional Wedges. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1991, 96(B6): 10301-10318.

Yaltirak C, Okay A I. Edremit Körfezi Kuzeyinde Paleotetis Birimlerinin Jeolojisi. ITÜ Dergisi/d Mühendislik, 2004, 3(1): 67-79. (in Turkish)

Yilmaz Y, Genç S C, Gürer Ö F F, . Görür N, . Ege Denizi ve Ege bölgesinin Jeolojisi ve Evrimi. Türkiye Denizleri, Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1999, Ankara: Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştirma Kurumu Yayini, 211-337. (in Turkish)

Yilmaz Y, Genç S C, Gürer Ö F F, . When did the Western Anatolian Grabens Begin to Develop?. Geological Society of London, Special Publication, 2000, 1: 353-384. Bozkurt, E., Winchester, J. A., Piper, J. D. A., eds., Tectonics and Magmatism in Turkey and the Surrounding Area