Rapid carbonate depositional changes following the Permian-Triassic mass extinction: Sedimentary evidence from South China

Abstract

Various environmental changes were associated with the Permian-Triassic mass extinction at 252.2 Ma. Diverse unusual sediments and depositional phenomena have been uncovered as responses to environmental and biotic changes. Lithological and detailed conodont biostratigraphic correlations within six Permian-Triassic boundary sections in South China indicate rapid fluctuations in carbonate deposition. Four distinct depositional phases can be recognized: (1) normal carbonate deposition on the platform and slope during the latest Permian; (2) reduced carbonate deposition at the onset of the main extinction horizon; (3) expanded areas of carbonate deposition during the Hindeodus changxingsensis Zone to the H. parvus Zone; and (4) persistent mud-enriched carbonate deposition in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic transition. Although availability of skeletal carbonate was significantly reduced during the mass extinction, the increase in carbonate deposition did not behave the same way. The rapid carbonate depositional changes, presented in this study, suggest that diverse environmental changes played key roles in the carbonate deposition of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction and onset of its aftermath. An overview of hypotheses to explain these changes implies enhanced terrestrial input, abnormal ocean circulation and various geobiological processes contributed to carbonate saturation fluctuations, as the sedimentary response to large volcanic eruptions.

Keywords

Permian-Triassic / mass extinction / carbonate / sedimentary response / environmental change

References

[1] Algeo T J, Chen Z Q, Fraiser M L, . Terrestrial-Marine Teleconnections in the Collapse and Rebuilding of Early Triassic Marine Ecosystems. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2011, 308(1–2): 1-11.

[2] Algeo T J, Twitchett R J. Anomalous Early Triassic Sediment Fluxes due to Elevated Weathering Rates and Their Biological Consequences. Geology, 2010, 38(11): 1023-1026.

[3] Baud A, Richoz S, Marcoux J. Calcimicrobial Cap Rocks from the Basal Triassic Units: Western Taurus Occurrences (SW Turkey). Comptes Rendus Palevol, 2005, 4(6–7): 569-582.

[4] Baud A, Richoz S, Pruss S B. The Lower Triassic Anachronistic Carbonate Facies in Space and Time. Global and Planetary Change, 2007, 55(1–3): 81-89.

[5] Berner R A. GEOCARBSULF: A Combined Model for Phanerozoic Atmosphereic O₂ and CO₂. Geochimica et Cosmoschimica Acta, 2006, 70(23): 5653-5664.

[6] Bond D P G, Wignall P B. Pyrite Framboid Study of Marine Permian-Triassic boundary Sections: A Complex Anoxic Event and its Relationship to Contemporaneous Mass Extinction. GSA Bulletin, 2010, 122(7–8): 1265-1279.

[7] Bottjer D J, Clapham M E, Fraiser M L, . Understanding Mechanisms for the end-Permian Mass Extinction and the Protracted Early Triassic Aftermath and Recovery. GSA Today, 2008, 18(9): 4-10.

[8] Burgess S D, Bowring S, Shen S Z. High-Precision Timeline for Earth’s Most Severe Extinction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2014, 111(9): 3316-3321.

[9] Campbell I H, Czamanske G K, Fedorenko V A, . Synchronism of the Siberian Traps and the Permian-Triassic Boundary. Science, 1992, 258(5089): 1760-1763.

[10] Coale K H, Fitzwater S E, Gordon R M, . Control of Community Growth and Export Production by Upwelled Iron in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature, 1996, 379: 621-624.

[11] Collin P, Kershaw S, Crasquin-Soleau S, . Facies Changes and Diagenetic Processes across the Permian-Triassic Boundary Event Horizon, Great Bank of Guizhou, South China: A Controversy of Erosion and Dissolution. Sedimentology, 2009, 56(3): 677-693.

[12] Cui Y, Kump L R, Ridgwell A. Initial Assessment of the Carbon Emission Rate and Climatic Consequences during the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2013, 389: 128-136.

[13] De Baar H J W, De Jong J T M, Bakker D C E, . Importance of Iron for Plankton Blooms and Carbon Dioxide Drawdown in the Southern Ocean. Nature, 1995, 373: 412-415.

[14] Erwin D H. The Permo-Triassic Extinction. Nature, 1994, 367: 231-236.

[15] Georgiev S, Stein H J, Hannah J L, . Hot Acidic Late Permian Seas Stifle Life in Record Time. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2011, 310(3–4): 389-400.

[16] Greene S E, Martindale R C, Ritterbush K A, . Recognising Ocean Acidification in Deep Time: An Evaluation of the Evidence for Acidification across the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary. Earth-Science Reviews, 2012, 113(1–2): 72-93.

[17] Grice K, Cao C, Love G D, . Photic Zone Euxinia during the Permian-Triassic Superanoxic Event. Science, 2005, 307(5710): 706-709.

[18] Grotzinger J P, Knoll A H. Anomalous Carbonate Precipitates: Is the Precambrian the Key to the Permian?. Palaios, 1995, 10(6): 578-596.

[19] He L, Wang Y B, Woods A, . An Oxygenation Event Occurred in Deep Shelf Settings Immediately after the end-Permian Mass Extinction in South China. Global and Planetary Change, 2013, 101: 72-81.

[20] Hinojosa J L, Brown S T, Chen J, . Evidence for end-Permian Ocean Acidification from Calcium Isotopes in Biogenic Apatite. Geology, 2012, 40(8): 743-746.

[21] Hönisch B, Ridgwell A, Schmidt D N, . The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification. Science, 2012, 335(6072): 1058-1063.

[22] Isozaki Y. Permo-Triassic Boundary Superanoxia and Stratified Superocean Records from Lost Deep Sea. Science, 1997, 276(5310): 235-238.

[23] Jiang H S, Lai X L, Luo G M, . Restudy of Conodont Zonation and Evolution across the P/T Boundary at Meishan Section, Changxing, Zhejiang, China. Global and Planetary Change, 2007, 55: 39-55.

[24] Jiang H S, Lai X L, Sun Y D, . Permian-Triassic Conodonts from Dajiang (Guizhou, South China) and Their Implication for the Age of Microbialite Deposition in the Aftermath of the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Journal of Earth Science, 2014, 25(3): 413-430.

[25] Joachimski M M, Lai X L, Shen S Z, . Climate Warming in the Latest Permian and the Permian-Triassic Mass Extinction. Geology, 2012, 40(3): 195-198.

[26] Kaiho K, Kaiiwara Y, Chen Z Q, . A Sulfur Isotope Event at the End of the Permian. Chemical Geology, 2006, 235(1–2): 33-47.

[27] Kempe S. Alkalinity: The Link between Anaerobic Basins and Shallow Water Carbonates?. Naturwissenschaften, 1990, 77(9): 426-427.

[28] Kershaw S, Crasquin S, Li Y, . Ocean Acidification and the end-Permian Mass Extinction: To What Extent does Evidence Support Hypothesis?. Geosciences, 2012, 2(4): 221-234.

[29] Kershaw S, Li Y, Crasquin-Soleau S, . Earliest Triassic Microbialites in the South China Block and Other Areas: Controls on their Growth and Distribution. Facies, 2007, 53: 409-425.

[30] Kidder D L, Worsley T R. Causes and Consequences of Extreme Permo-Triassic Warming to Globally Equable Climate and Relation to the Permian-Triassic Extinction and Recovery. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2004, 203(3–4): 207-237.

[31] Knoll A H, Bambach R K, Canfield D E, . Comparative Earth History and Late Permian Mass Extinction. Science, 1996, 273(5274): 452-457.

[32] Knoll A H, Bambach R K, Payne J L, . Paleophysiology and end-Permian Mass Extinction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2007, 256(3–4): 295-313.

[33] Korte C, Kozur H W, Bruckschen P, . Strotium Isotope Evolution of Late Permian and Triassic Seawater. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2003, 67(1): 47-62.

[34] Kump L R. Interpreting Carbon Isotope Excursions: Strangelove Oceans. Geology, 1991, 19(4): 299-302.

[35] Kump L R, Bralower T J, Ridgwell A. Ocean Acidification in Deep Time. Oceanography, 2009, 22: 94-107.

[36] Lehrmann D J, Wei J Y, Enos P. Controls on Facies Architecture of a Large Triassic Carbonate Platform: The Great Bank of Guizhou, Nanpanjiang Basin, South China. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 1998, 68(2): 311-326.

[37] Li C, Love G D, Lyons T W, . A Stratified Redox Model for the Ediacaran Ocean. Science, 2010, 328(5974): 80-83.

[38] Li F, Yan J X, Algeo T, . Paleoceanographic Condition Following the end-Permian Mass Extinction Recorded by Giant Ooids (Moyang, South China). Global and Planetary Change, 2013, 105: 102-120.

[39] Li F, Yan J X, Chen Z Q, . Global Oolite Deposits across the Permian-Triassic Boundary: A Synthesis and Implications for Palaeoceanography Imeediately after the end-Permian Biocrisis. Earth-Science Reviews, 2014

[40] Liao W, Wang Y B, Kershaw S, . Shallow-Marine Dysoxia across the Permian-Triassic Boundary: Evidence from Pyrite Framboids in the Microbialite in South China. Sedimentary Geology, 2010, 232(1–2): 77-83.

[41] Luo G M, Kump L R, Wang Y B, . Isotopic Evidence for an Anomalously Low Oceanic Sulfate Concentration Following end-Permian Mass Extinction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2010, 300(1–2): 101-111.

[42] Luther G W, Church T M, Powell D. Sulfur Speciation and Sulfide Oxidation in the Water Column of the Black Sea. Deep-Sea Research, 1991, 38(Suppl.2): S1121-S1137.

[43] Metcalfe I, Nicoll R S, Wardlaw B R. Conodont Index Fossil Hindeodus changxingensis Wang Fingers Greatest Mass Extinction Event. Palaeoworld, 2007, 16(1–3): 202-207.

[44] Meyer K M, Yu M, Jost A B, . δ¹³C Evidence that High Primary Productivity Delayed Recovery from end-Permian Mass Extinction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2011, 302(3–4): 378-384.

[45] Pace M L, Knauer G A, Karl D M, . Primary Production, New Production and Vertical Flux in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Nature, 1987, 325: 803-804.

[46] Payne J L, Clapham M E. end-Permian Mass Extinction in the Ocean: An Ancient Analog for the Twenty-First Century?. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 2012, 40: 89-111.

[47] Payne J L, Lehrmann D J, Follett D, . Erosional Truncation of Uppermost Permian Shallow-Marine Carbonates and Implications for Permian-Triassic Boundary Events. GSA Bulletin, 2007, 119(7–8): 771-784.

[48] Payne J L, Turchyn A V, Paytan A, . Calcium Isotope Constraints on the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2010, 107(19): 8543-8548.

[49] Peters S E. Environmental Determinants of Extinction Selectivity in the Fossil Record. Nature, 2008, 454: 626-629.

[50] Pietsch C, Bottjer D J. The Importance Oxygen for the Disparate Recovery Patterns of the Benthic Macrofauna in the Early Triassic. Earth-Science Reviews, 2014, 137: 65-84.

[51] Pruss S B, Bottjer D J, Corsetti F A, . A Global Marine Sedimentary Response to the end-Permian Mass Extinction: Examples from Southern Turkey and the Western United States. Earth-Science Reviews, 2006, 78(3–4): 193-206.

[52] Rampino M R, Caldeira K. Major Perturbation of Ocean Chemistry and a ‘Strangelove Ocean’ after the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Terra Nova, 2005, 17(6): 554-559.

[53] Raup D M. Size of the Permo-Triassic Bottleneck and Its Evolutionary Implications. Science, 1979, 206(4415): 217-218.

[54] Sedlacek A R C, Saltzman M R, Algeo T J, . ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr Stratigraphy from the Early Triassic of Zal, Iran: Linking Temperature to Weathering Rates and the Tempo of Ecosystem Recovery. Geology, 2014, 42(9): 779-782.

[55] Shen S Z, Crowley J L, Wang Y, . Calibrating the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Science, 2011, 334(6061): 1367-1372.

[56] Shen W J, Lin Y T, Xu L, . Pyrite Framboids in the Permian-Triassic Boundary Section at Meishan, China: Evidence for Dysoxic Deposition. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2007, 253: 323-331.

[57] Shen Y A, Farquhar J, Zhang H, . Multiple S-Isotopic Evidence for Episodic Shoaling of Anoxic Water during Late Permian Mass Extinction. Nature Communications, 2011, 2(210): 210-214.

[58] Song H J, Tong J N, Xiong Y L, . The Large Increase of δ¹³C carb-Depth Gradient and the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Science China: Earth Sciences, 2012, 55: 1101-1109.

[59] Song H J, Wignall P B, Chen Z Q, . Recovery Tempo and Pattern of Marine Ecosystems after the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Geology, 2011, 39(8): 739-742.

[60] Song H J, Wignall P B, Chu D L, . Anoxia/High Temperature Double Whammy during the Permian-Triassic Marine Crisis and Its Aftermath. Scientific Reports, 2014, 4 4132 4132.

[61] Song H J, Wignall P B, Tong J N, . Geochemical Evidence from Bio-Apatite for Multiple Oceanic Anoxic Events during Permian-Triassic Transition and the Link with end-Permian Extinction and Recovery. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2012, 353–354: 12-21.

[62] Song H J, Wignall P B, Tong J N, . Two Pulses of Extinction during the Permian-Triassic Crisis. Nature Geoscience, 2013, 6: 52-56.

[63] Song H Y, Tong J N, Algeo T J, . Large Vertical 13CDIC Gradients in Early Triassic Seas of the South China Craton: Implications for Oceanographic Changes Related to Siberian Traps Volcanism. Global and Planetary Change, 2013, 105: 7-20.

[64] Song H Y, Tong J N, Algeo T J, . Early Triassic Seawater Sulfate Drawdown. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2014, 128: 95-113.

[65] Suess E. Particulate Organic Carbon Flux in the Oceans-Surface Productivity and Oxygen Utilization. Nature, 1980, 288: 260-263.

[66] Sun D Y, Tong J N, Xiong Y L, . Conodont Biostratigraphy and Evolution across Permian-Triassic Boundary at Yangou Section, Leping, Jiangxi Province, South China. Journal of Earth Science, 2012, 23(3): 311-325.

[67] Sun Y D, Joachimski M M, Wignall P B, . Lethally Hot Temperatures during the Early Triassic Greenhouse. Science, 2012, 338: 366-370.

[68] Svensen H, Planke S, Polozov A G, . Siberian Gas Venting and the end-Permian Environmental Crisis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2009, 277(3–4): 490-500.

[69] Takeda S. Influence of Iron Availability on Nutrient Consumption Ration of Diatoms in Oceanic Waters. Nature, 1998, 393: 774-777.

[70] Tian L, Tong J N, Algeo T J, . Reconstruction of Early Triassic Ocean Redox Conditions Based on Framboidal Pyrite from the Nanpanjiang Basin, South China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2014, 412: 68-79.

[71] Tian L, Tong J N, Sun D Y, . The Microfacies and Sedimentary Responses to the Mass Extinction during the Permian-Triassic Transition at Yangou Section, Jiangxi Province, South China. Science China: Earth Sciences, 2014, 57(9): 2195-2207.

[72] Tian S F, Chen Z Q, Huang C J. Orbital Forcing and Sea-Level Changes in the Earliest Triassic of the Meishan Section, South China. Journal of Earth Science, 2014, 25(1): 64-73.

[73] Wang G Q, Xia W C. Conodont Zonation across the Permian-Triassic Boundary at the Xiakou Section, Yichang City, Hubei Province and Its Correlation with the Global Stratotype Section and Point of the PTB. Canada Journal of Earth Science, 2004, 41: 323-330.

[74] Wang Q X, Tong J N, Song H J, . Ecological Evolution across the Permian/Triassic Boundary at the Kangjiaping Section in Cili County, Hunan Province, China. Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences, 2009, 52: 797-806.

[75] Wang Y B, Tong J N, Wang J S, . Calcimicrobialite after end-Permian Mass Extinction in South China and Its Palaeoenvironmental Significance. Chinese Science Bulletin, 2005, 50(7): 665-671.

[76] Wignall P B. Large Igneous Provinces and Mass Extinctions. Earth-Science Reviews, 2001, 53(1–2): 1-33.

[77] Wignall P B, Kershaw S, Collin P, . Erosional Truncation of Uppermost Permian Shallow-Marine Carbonates and Implications for Permian-Triassic Boundary Events: Comment. GSA Bulletin, 2009, 121(5–6): 954-956.

[78] Wignall P B, Twitchett R J. Oceanic Anoxia and the End Permian Mass Extinction. Science, 1996, 272(5265): 1155-1158.

[79] Wignall P B, Twitchett R J. Extent, Duration, and Nature of the Permian-Triassic Superanoxic Event. Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 2002, 356: 395-414.

[80] Woods A D. Assessing Early Triassic Palaeoceanorgraphic Conditions via Unusual Sedimentary Fabrics and Features. Earth-Science Reviews, 2014, 137: 6-18.

[81] Woods A D, Bottjer D J, Mutti M, . Lower Triassic Large Seafloor Carbonate Cements: Their Origin and a Mechanism for the Prolonged Biotic Recovery from the end-Permian Mass Extinction. Geology, 1999, 27: 645-648.

[82] Xie S C, Pancost R D, Huang X Y, . Molecular and Isotopic Evidence for Episodic Environmental Change across the Permo/Triassic Boundary at Meishan in South China. Global and Planetary Change, 2007, 55: 56-65.

[83] Xie S C, Pancost R D, Wang Y B, . Cyanobacterial Blooms Tied to Volcanism during the 5 m.y. Permo-Triassic Biotic Crisis. Geology, 2010, 38(5): 447-450.

[84] Yang H, Chen Z Q, Wang Y B, . Composition and Structure of Microbialite Ecosystems Following the end-Permian Mass Extinction in South China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2011, 308(1–2): 111-123.

[85] Yin H F, Jiang H S, Xia W C, . The end-Permian Regression in South China and its Implication on Mass Extinction. Earth-Science Reviews, 2014, 137: 19-33.

[86] Yin H F, Zhang K X, Tong J N, . The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary. Episodes, 2001, 24(2): 102-114.

[87] Zeebe R E, Westbroek P. A Simple Model for the CaCO3 Saturation State of the Ocean: The “Strangelove” the “Neritan” and the “Cretan” Ocean. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 2003, 4 12 e1104

[88] Zhang K X, Tong J N, Yin H F, . Sequence Stratigraphy of the Permian-Triassic Boundary Section of Chiangxing, Zhejiang. Acta Geologica Sinica, 1996, 48(3): 474-486.

[89] Zhang Y, Zhang K X, Shi G R, . Restudy of Conodont Biostratigraphy of the Permian-Triassic Boundary Section in Zhongzhai, Southwestern Guizhou Province, South China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 2014, 80: 75-83.

[90] Zheng Q F. Sedimentary Microfacies and Sequence Stratigraphy of the P-T Boundary Beds of the Meishan Section, Changing County, Zhejiang. Journal of Stratigraphy, 2006, 30(4): 373-385.