High-pressure experimental studies on geo-liquids using synchrotron radiation at the Advanced Photon Source

Abstract

We review recent progress in studying silicate, carbonate, and metallic liquids of geological and geophysical importance at high pressure and temperature, using the large-volume high-pressure devices at the third-generation synchrotron facility of the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. These integrated high-pressure facilities now offer a unique combination of experimental techniques that allow researchers to investigate structure, density, elasticity, viscosity, and interfacial tension of geo-liquids under high pressure, in a coordinated and systematic fashion. Experimental techniques are described, along with scientific highlights. Future developments are also discussed.

Keywords

high pressure / synchrotron / melts / liquid structure / magma dynamics / mantle dynamics

References

[1] Abe Y. Physical State of the Very Early Earth. Lithos, 1993, 30(3–4): 223-235.

[2] Abe Y. Thermal and Chemical Evolution of the Terrestrial Magma Ocean. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 1997, 100(1–4): 27-39.

[3] Agee C B, Walker D. Static Compression and Olivine Floatation in Ultrabasic Silicate Liquid. J. Geophys. Res., 1988, 93(B4): 3437-3449.

[4] Allwardt J R, Stebbins J F, Schmidt B C, . Aluminum Coordination and the Densification of High-Pressure Aluminosilicate Glasses. American Mineralogist, 2005, 90(7): 1218-1222.

[5] Anderson O L. Equations of State of Solids for Geophysics and Cramic Sience, 1995 Oxford: Oxford University Press

[6] Bashforth F, Adams J C. An Attempt to Test the Theory of Capillary Action, 1892 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and Deighton Bell & Co.

[7] Beckmann F, Herzen J, Haibel A, . High Density Resolution in Synchrotron-Radiation-Based Attenuation-Contrast Microtomography. Paper Presented at Proc. SPIE, San Diego, 2008

[8] Birch F. Elaticity and Constitution of the Earth’s Interior. J. Geophys. Res., 1952, 57: 227-286.

[9] Bottinga Y, Weill D F. The Viscosity of Magmatic Silicate Liquids: A Model Calculation. American Journal of Science, 1972, 272(5): 438-475.

[10] Brazhkin V, Farnan I, Funakoshi K, . Structural Transformations and Anomalous Viscosity in the B2O3 Melt under High Pressure. Phys. Rev. Lett., 2010, 105 115701.

[11] Brizard M, Megharfi M, Mahé E, . Design of a High Precision Falling-Ball Viscometer. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2005, 76 2 025109.

[12] Butt H J, Graf K, Kappl M. Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces, 2003 Darmstadt: Wyllie-VCH Verlag, 361.

[13] Coltice N, Moreira M, Hernlund J, . Crystallization of a Basal Magma Ocean Recorded by Helium and Neon. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2011, 308(1–2): 193-199.

[14] Cromer D T. Compton Scattering Factors for Aspherical Free Atoms. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 1969, 50: 4857-4859.

[15] Cromer D T, Mann J B. Compton Scattering Factors for Spherically Symmetric Free Atoms. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 1967, 47: 1892-1893.

[16] Dobson D P, Crichton W A, Vocadlo L, . In Situ Measurement of Viscosity of Liquids in the Fe-FeS System at High Pressures and Temperatures. American Mineralogist, 2000, 85: 1838-1842.

[17] Faber T E, Ziman J M. A Theory of the Electrical Properties of Liquid Metals. Philosophical Magazine, 1965, 11(109): 153-173.

[18] Faxén H. Der Widerstand Gegen Die Bewegung Einer Starren Kugel in Einer Zähen Flüssigkeit, Die Zwischen Zwei Parallelen Ebenen Wänden Eingeschlossen Ist. Annalen der Physik, 1922, 373(10): 89-119.

[19] Funakoshi K. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Diffraction Study for Alkali Silicate Melts Using Synchrotron Radiation Under High Pressure and Temperature, 1995 Tokyo: Tokyo Institute of Technology, 117.

[20] Funamori N, Yamamoto S, Yagi T, . Exploratory Studies of Silicate Melt Sructure at High Pressures and Temperatures by In Situ X-Ray Diffraction. J. Geophys. Res., 2004, 109 B03203.

[21] Gaetani G, Grove T. Wetting of Mantle Olivine by Sulfide Melt: Implications for Re/Os Ratios in Mantle Peridotite and Late-Stage Core Formation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 1999, 169: 147-163.

[22] Genge M J, Price G D, Jones A P. Molecular Dynamics Simulations of CaCO₃ Melts to Mantle Pressures and Temperatures: Implications for Carbonatite Magmas. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 1995, 131(3–4): 225-238.

[23] Ghiorso M S. An Equation of State for Silicate Melts. III. Analysis of Soichiometric Liquids at Elevated Pressure: Shock Compression Data, Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Mineral Fusion Curves. American Journal of Science, 2004, 304(8–9): 752-810.

[24] Giordano D, Russell J K, Dingwell D B. Viscosity of Magmatic Liquids: A Model. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2008, 271(1–4): 123-134.

[25] Greaves G N, Sen S. Inorganic Glasses, Glass-Forming Liquids and Amorphizing Solids. Advances in Physics, 2007, 56(1): 1-166.

[26] Hansen F K. Surface Tension by Image Analysis: Fast and Automatic Measurements of Pendant and Sessile Drops and Bubbles. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 1993, 160(1): 209-217.

[27] Henderson G S, Calas G, Stebbins J F. The Structure of Silicate Glasses and Melts. Elements, 2006, 2: 269-273.

[28] Herzfeld K F, Litovitz T A. Absorption and Dispersion of Ultrasonic Waves, 1959 New York: Academic Press, 535.

[29] Huang H J, Fei Y W, Cai L C, . Evidence for an Oxygen-Depleted Liquid Outer Core of the Earth. Nature, 2011, 479: 513-516.

[30] Jing Z, Karato S I. Compositional Effect on the Pressure Derivatives of Bulk Modulus of Silicate Melts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2008, 272(1–2): 429-436.

[31] Jing Z, Karato S I. A New Approach to the Equation of State of Silicate Melts: An Application of the Theory of Hard Sphere Mixtures. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2011, 75(22): 6780-6802.

[32] Jing Z, Wang Y, Kono Y, . Moon’s Molten Outer Core: Composition, Density and Thermal State. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2014, 396: 78-87.

[33] Jones A, Genge M, Carmody L. Carbonate Melts and Carbonatites. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 2013, 75: 289-322.

[34] Kanzaki M, Kurita K, Fujii T, . Manghnani M H, Syono Y, . A New Technique to Measure the Viscosity and Density of Silicate Melts at High Pressure. High-Pressure Research in Mineral Physics, 1987 Tokyo: Terrapub/AGU, 195-200.

[35] Kapilashrami E, Jakobsson A, Seetharaman S, . Studies of the Wetting Characteristics of Liquid Iron on Dense Alumina by the X-Ray Sessile Drop Technique. Metall. and Materi. Trans. B, 2003, 34(2): 193-199.

[36] Karki B B. First-Principles Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Silicate Melts: Structural and Dynamical Properties. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 2010, 71(1): 355-389.

[37] Katayama Y. Density Measurements of Non-Cystalline Materials under High Pressure and High Temperature. High Pressure Research, 1996, 14: 383-391.

[38] Katayama Y. In Situ Observation of a First-Order Liquid-Liquid Transition in Phosphorus. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 2002, 312–314: 8-14.

[39] Katayama Y, Tsuji K, Chen J Q, . Density of Liquid Tellurium under High Pressure. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 1993, 156–158(Part2): 687-690.

[40] Ketcham R A, Carlson W D. Acquisition, Optimization and Interpretation of X-Ray Computed Tomographic Imagery: Applications to the Geosciences. Computers & Geosciences, 2001, 27(4): 381-400.

[41] Kono Y, Kenney-Benson C, Hummer D, . Ultralow Viscosity of Carbonate Melts at High Pressures. Nat. Commun., 2014, 5 5091.

[42] Kono Y, Park C, Kenney-Benson C, . Toward Comprehensive Studies of Liquids at High Pressures and High Temperatures: Combined Structure, Elastic Wave Velocity, and Viscosity Measurements in the Paris-Edinburgh Cell. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2014, 228: 269-280.

[43] Kono Y, Kenney-Benson C, Kenney-Benson C, . Anomaly in the Viscosity of Liquid KCl at High Pressures. Physical Review B, 2013, 87 2 024302.

[44] Kono Y, Park C, Sakamaki T, . Simultaneous Structure and Elastic Wave Velocity Measurement of SiO₂ Glass at High Pressures and High Temperatures in a Paris-Edinburgh Cell. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2012, 83(3): 33905-33908.

[45] Kung J, Li B, Uchida T, . In Situ Measurements of Sound Velocities and Densities across the Orthopyroxene—High-Pressure Clinopyroxene Tansition in MgSiO₃ at High Pressure. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2004, 147(1): 27-44.

[46] Kushiro I, Mysen B O. A Possible Effect of Melt Sructure on the Mg-Fe²⁺ Partitioning between Olivine and Melt. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2002, 66(12): 2267-2272.

[47] Labrosse S. Thermal and Magnetic Evolution of the Earth’s Core. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2003, 140(1–3): 127-143.

[48] Labrosse S, Hernlund J W, Coltice N. A Crystallizing Dense Magma Ocean at the Base of the Earth’s Mantle. Nature, 2007, 450(7171): 866-869.

[49] Lange R L, Carmichael I S E. Thermodynamic Properties of Silicate Liquids with Emphasis on Density, Thermal Expansion and Compressibility. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 1990, 24(1): 25-64.

[50] Lee S K. Simplicity in Melt Densification in Multicomponent Magmatic Reservoirs in Earth’s Interior Revealed by Multinuclear Magnetic Resonance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2011, 108(17): 6847-6852.

[51] Lee S K, Eng P J, Mao H K. Probing of Pressure-Induced Bonding Transitions in Crystalline and Amorphous Earth Materials: Insights from X-Ray Raman Scattering at High Pressure. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 2014, 78(1): 139-174.

[52] Lesher C E. Self-Diffusion in Silicate Melts: Theory, Observations and Applications to Magmatic Systems. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 2010, 72(1): 269-309.

[53] Lesher C E, Wang Y, Gaudio S, . Volumetric Properties of Magnesium Silicate Glasses and Supercooled Liquid at High Pressure by X-Ray Microtomography. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2009, 174(1–4): 292-301.

[54] Li B, Kung J, Uchida T, . Chen J, Wang Y, Duffy T S, . Simultaneous Equation of State, Pressure Calibration and Sound Velocity Measurements to Lower Mantle Pressures Using Multi-Anvil Apparatus. Advances in High-Pressure Techniques for Geophysical Applications, 2005 Amsterdam: Elsevier, 49-66.

[55] Lorch E. Neutron Diffraction by Germania, Silica and Radiation-Damaged Silica Glasses. Journal of Physics C: Solid State Physics, 1969, 2 2 229.

[56] Maude A D. End Effects in a Falling-Sphere Viscometer. British Journal of Applied Physics, 1961, 12 6 293.

[57] Mezouar M. Multichannel Collimator for Structural Investigation of Liquids and Amorphous Materials at High Pressures and Temperatures. Rev. Sci. Instrum., 2002, 73 10 3570.

[58] Minarik W G, Ryerson F J, Watson E B. Textural Entrapment of Core-Forming Melts. Science, 1996, 272(5261): 530-533.

[59] Morard G, Sanloup C, Guillot B, . In Situ Structural Investigation of Fe-S-Si Immiscible Liquid System and Evolution of Fe-S Bond Properties with Pressure. J. Geophys. Res., 2008, 113 B10205.

[60] Morard G, Andrault D, Guignot N, . In Situ Determination of Fe-Fe₃S Phase Diagram and Liquid Structural Properties up to 65 GPa. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2008, 272(3–4): 620-626.

[61] Morard G, Sanloup C, Fiquet G, . Structure of Eutectic Fe-FeS Melts to Pressures up to 17 GPa: Implications for Planetary Cores. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2007, 263(1–2): 128-139.

[62] Morard G, Siebert J, Andrault D, . The Earth’s Core Composition from High Pressure Density Measurements of Liquid Iron Alloys. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2013, 373: 169-178.

[63] Mysen B. The Structure of Silicate Melts. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 1983, 11: 75-97.

[64] Mysen B, Richet P. Mysen B, Richet P. Chapter 4 Melt and Glass Structure: Basic Concepts. Silicate Glasses and Melts, 2005 Amsterdam: Elsevier, 101-129.

[65] Nishida K, Ohtani E, Urakawa S, . Density Measurement of Liquid FeS at High Pressures Using Synchrotron X-Ray Absorption. American Mineralogist, 2011, 96 5 864.

[66] Nishikawa N, Iijima T. Correction for Intensity Data in Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Diffractometry of Liquid, Application to Carbon Tetrachloride. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 1984, 57: 1750-1759.

[67] Phillips J C. Topology of Covalent Non-Crystalline Solids I: Short-Range Order in Chalcogenide Alloys. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 1979, 34(2): 153-181.

[68] Poe B T, Romano C, Liebske C, . High-Temperature Viscosity Measurements of Hydrous Albite Liquid Using In-Situ Falling-Sphere Viscometry at 2.5 GPa. Chemical Geology, 2006, 229(1–3): 2-9.

[69] Rigden S M, Ahrens T J, Stolper E M. Shock Compression of Molten Silicate: Results for a Model Basaltic Composition. J. Geophys. Res., 1988, 93(B1): 367-382.

[70] Rotenberg Y, Boruvka L, Neumann A W. Determination of Surface Tension and Contact Angle from the Shapes of Axisymmetric Fluid Interfaces. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 1983, 93(1): 169-183.

[71] Rutter M D, Secco R A, Liu H, . Viscosity of Liquid Fe at High Pressure. Physical Review B, 2002, 66 6 060102.

[72] Rutter M D, Secco R A, Uchida T, . Towards Evaluating the Viscosity of the Earth’s Outer Core: An Experimental High Pressure Study of Liquid Fe-S (8.5 wt.% S). Geophysical Research Letters, 2002, 29(8): 58-51-58-54.

[73] Sakamaki T, Kono Y, Wang Y, . Contrasting Sound Velocity and Intermediate-Range Structural Order between Polymerized and Depolymerized Silicate Glasses under Pressure. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2014, 391: 288-295.

[74] Sakamaki T, Wang Y, Park C, . Contrasting Behavior of Intermediate-Range Order Sructures in Jadeite Glass and Melt. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2014, 228: 281-286.

[75] Sakamaki T, Ohtani E, Urakawa S, . Measurement of Hydrous Peridotite Magma Density at High Pressure Using the X-Ray Absorption Method. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2009, 287(3–4): 293-297.

[76] Sakamaki T, Ohtani E, Urakawa S, . Density of Dry Peridotite Magma at High Pressure Using an X-Ray Absorption Method. American Mineralogist, 2010, 95(1): 144-147.

[77] Sakamaki T, Ohtani E, Urakawa S, . Density of Carbonated Peridotite Magma at High Pressure Using an X-Ray Absorption Method. American Mineralogist, 2011, 96(4): 553-557.

[78] Sakamaki T, Suzuki A, Ohtani E. Stability of Hydrous Melt at the Base of the Earth’s Upper Mantle. Nature, 2006, 439(7073): 192-194.

[79] Sakamaki T, Suzuki A, Ohtani E, . Ponded Melt at the Boundary between the Lithosphere and Asthenosphere. Nature Geosci., 2013, 6(12): 1041-1044.

[80] Sakamaki T, Wang Y, Park C, . Structure of Jadeite Melt at High Pressures up to 4.9 GPa. Journal of Applied Physics, 2012, 111(11): 112623-112625.

[81] Sanloup C, Fiquet G, Gregoryanz E, . Effect of Si on Liquid Fe Compressibility: Implications for Sound Velocity in Core Materials. Geophysical Research Letters, 2004, 31 L07604.

[82] Sanloup C, Guyot F, Gillet P. Density Measurements of Liquid Fe-S Alloys at High Pressure. Geophysical Research Letters, 2000, 27: 811-814.

[83] Schubert G, Turcotte D L, Olson P. Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets, 2001 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

[84] Secco R A, Rutter M D, Balog S P, . Viscosity and Density of Fe-S Liquids at High Pressures. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 2002, 14 44 11325.

[85] Shannon M C, Agee C B. Percolation of Core Melts at Lower Mantle Conditions. Science, 1998, 280(5366): 1059-1061.

[86] Shen G, Prakapenka V B, Rivers M L, . Structure of Liquid Iron at Pressures up to 58 GPa. Physical Review Letters, 2004, 92 185701.

[87] Shenoy G K, Viccaro P J, Mills D M. Characteristics of the 7-GeV Advanced Photon Source: A Guide for Users, 1988 Argonne: Argonne National Laboratory, 1-57.

[88] Stebbins J F. Dynamics and Structure of Slicate and Oxide Melts: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 1995, 32(1): 191-246.

[89] Stebbins J F, Xue X. Henderson G S, Neuville D. NMR Spectroscopy in Inorganic Earth Materials. Spectroscopic and Other Characterization Methods in Mineralogy and Materials Sciences, 2014 Chantilly, VA: Mineralogical Society of America, 650-653.

[90] Stevenson D J. Planetary Magnetic Fields. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2003, 208(1–2): 1-11.

[91] Susman S, Volin K J, Price D L, . Intermediate-Range Order in Permanently Densified Vitreous SiO2: A Neutron-Diffraction and Molecular-Dynamics Study. Physical Review B, 1991, 43(1): 1194-1197.

[92] Suzuki A, Ohtani E, Terasaki H, . Viscosity of Silicate Melts in CaMgSi₂O₆-NaAlSi₂O₆ System at High Pressure. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 2005, 32(2): 140-145.

[93] Terasaki H, Frost D J, Rubie D C, . The Effect of Oxygen and Sulphur on the Dihedral Angle between Fe-O-S Melt and Silicate Minerals at High Pressure: Implications for Martian Core Formation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2005, 232(3–4): 379-392.

[94] Terasaki H, Suzuki A, Ohtani E, . Effect of Pressure on the Viscosity of Fe-S and Fe-C Liquids up to 16 GPa. Geophysical Research Letters, 2006, 33 L22307.

[95] Terasaki H, Urakawa S, Funakoshi K, . Interfacial Tension Measurement of Ni-S Liquid Using High-Pressure X-Ray Micro-Tomography. High Pressure Research, 2008, 28(3): 327-334.

[96] Terasaki H, Urakawa S, Funakoshi K, . In Situ Measurement of Interfacial Tension of Fe-S and Fe-P Liquids under High Pressure Using X-Ray Radiography and Tomography Techniques. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2009, 174(1–4): 220-226.

[97] Thomas C W, Asimow P D. Direct Shock Compression Experiments on Premolten Forsterite and Progress toward a Consistent High-Pressure Equation of State for CaO-MgO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂-FeO Liquids. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2013, 118 11 2013JB010232.

[98] Thomas C W, Asimow P D. Preheated Shock Experiments in the Molten CaAl₂Si₂O₈-CaFeSi₂O₆-CaMgSi₂O₆ Ternary: A Test for Linear Mixing of Liquid Volumes at High Pressure and Temperature. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2013, 118(7): 3354-3365.

[99] Thorpe M F. Continuous Deformations in Random Networks. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 1983, 57(3): 355-370.

[100] Tinker D, Lesher C E, Baxter G M, . High-Pressure Viscometry of Polymerized Silicate Melts and Limitations of the Eyring Equation. American Mineralogist, 2004, 89(11–12): 1701-1708.

[101] Tsuji K, Yaoita K, Imai M, . Measurements of X-Ray Diffraction for Liquid Metals under High Pressure. Review of Scientific Instruments, 1989, 60(7): 2425-2428.

[102] Wang Y, Durham W B, Getting I C, . The Deformation-DIA: A New Apparatus for High Temperature Triaxial Deformation to Pressures up to 15 GPa. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2003, 74: 3002-3011.

[103] Wang Y, Rivers M, Sutton S, . The Large-Volume High-Pressure Facility at GSECARS: A “Swiss-Army-Knife” Approach to Synchrotron-Based Experimental Studies. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2009, 174(1–4): 270-281.

[104] Wang Y, Sakamaki T, Skinner L B, . Atomistic Insight into Viscosity and Density of Silicate Melts under Pressure. Nat. Commun., 2014, 5 3241.

[105] Wang Y, Shen G, Rivers M L. Mills D M. High Pressure Research Techniques at Third Generation Synchrotron Radiation Sources. Third-Generation Hard X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation Sources, 2002 New York: John Wiley & Sons, 203-236.

[106] Wang Y, Uchida T, Westferro F, . High-Pressure X-Ray Tomography Microscope: Synchrotron Computed Microtomography at High Pressure and Temperature. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2005, 40(21): 5763-5766.

[107] Yamada A, Inoue T, Urakawa S, . In Situ X-Ray Experiment on the Structure of Hydrous Mg-Silicate Melt under High Pressure and High Temperature. Geophysical Research Letters, 2007, 34 10 L10303.

[108] Yamada A, Wang Y, Inoue T, . High-Pressure X-Ray Diffraction Studies on the Structure of Liquid Silicate Using a Paris—Edinburgh Type Large Volume Press. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2011, 82(1): 15103-05107.

[109] Zouboulis E, Grimsditch M, Ramdas A, . Temperature Dependence of the Elastic Moduli of Diamond: A Brillouin-Scattering Study. Physical Review B, 1998, 57 5 2889.