Bio-augmented microbial induced carbonate precipitation for immobilizing Pb contaminants in soil

Abstract

Heavy metal contamination, particularly lead (Pb), poses severe threats to ecosystems due to its persistence and bioaccumulation. This study investigates the remediation of Pb-contaminated soil using bio-augmented microbial induced carbonate precipitation (MICP). The effects of Pb concentration and soil depth on bacterial activity (viable cell counts and urease activity) were evaluated. Furthermore, the impact of different calcium sources and Pb concentrations on immobilization efficiency was assessed via unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. The results indicate that the bacterial tolerance threshold for Pb is 50 mmol/L, beyond which the MICP process is significantly inhibited. However, within this threshold, bio-augmented MICP effectively enhances soil strength, achieving a UCS of 0.94 MPa in soil with 50 mmol/L Pb. Microstructural and physicochemical analyses reveal that the remediation mechanism involves the precipitation of carbonate, co-precipitation, and the transformation of macropores into capillary pores. Notably, this study elucidates the distinct advantages of bio-augmentation, particularly its robust tolerance to Pb toxicity and sustained mineralization capability, in reducing the bioavailability of Pb in contaminated soil matrices.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

microbial induced carbonate precipitation / bio-augmentation / Pb-contaminated soil / engineering properties / solidification/stabilization

References

[1] Xia W Y , Du Y J , Li F S , Li C P , Yan X L , Arulrajah A , Wang F , Song D J . In-situ solidification/stabilization of heavy metals contaminated site soil using a dry jet mixing method and new hydroxyapatite based binder. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2019, 369: 353–361

[2] Zhang Y , Hu X L , Wang Y J , Jiang N J . A critical review of biomineralization in environmental geotechnics: Applications, trends, and perspectives. Biogeotechnics, 2023, 1(1): 100003

[3] Jiang N J , Wang Y J , Chu J , Kawasaki S , Tang C S , Cheng L , Du Y J , Shashank B S , Singh D N , Han X L . et al. Bio-mediated soil improvement: An introspection into processes, materials, characterization and applications. Soil Use and Management, 2022, 38(1): 68–93

[4] Liu H L , Chu J , Kavazanjian E . Biogeotechnics: A new frontier in geotechnical engineering for sustainability. Biogeotechnics, 2023, 1(1): 100001

[5] Wang Y Z , Konstantinou C , Tang S K , Chen H Y . Applications of microbial-induced carbonate precipitation: A state-of-the-art review. Biogeotechnics, 2023, 1(1): 100008

[6] Xiao Y , He X , Zaman M , Ma G L , Zhao C . Review of strength improvements of biocemented soils. International Journal of Geomechanics, 2022, 22(11): 03122001

[7] Hu W L , Cheng W C , Huang Q , He P L . Enhancement mechanism of electrokinetic remediation of a Cu- and Pb-contaminated loess by constructing a multi-electrode configuration. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 521: 166880

[8] Zhang J W , Yin Y , Shi W P , Bian H L , Shi L , Wu L Y , Han Z G , Zheng J J , He X . Strength and uniformity of EICP-treated sand under multi-factor coupling effects. Biogeotechnics, 2023, 1(1): 100007

[9] Zhang J W , Wang P K , Dong Y , Zheng J J , Song Y , Liu H L , Zhang M. . Investigation of desiccation cracking of earthen site soils treated by enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (EICP).. Biogeotechnics, 2025,

[10] Bai H , Liu D , Zheng W L , Ma L Y , Yang S S , Cao J P , Lu X L , Wang H M , Mehta N . Microbially-induced calcium carbonate precipitation by a halophilic ureolytic bacterium and its potential for remediation of heavy metal-contaminated saline environments. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 2021, 165: 105311

[11] Chen M J , Li Y F , Li B W , Jiang X R , Zhang C L . Effect of stabilization of Pb-pollution in soil based on microbial induced calcite precipitation. Nonferrous Metals Engineering, 2020, 10(12): 128–134

[12] Jiang N J , Liu R , Du Y J , Bi Y Z . Microbial induced carbonate precipitation for immobilizing Pb contaminants: Toxic effects on bacterial activity and immobilization efficiency. Science of the Total Environment, 2019, 672: 722–731

[13] Li C , Tian L , Dong C H , Zhang Y F , Wang Y X. . Experimental study on zinc-lead composite contaminated soil solidified/stabilized by MICP technology combined with porous silicon adsorption materials.. Rock and Soil Mechanics, 2022, 43(2): 307–316

[14] Ghorbanzadeh N , Abduolrahimi S , Forghani A , Farhangi M B . Bioremediation of cadmium in a sandy and a clay soil by microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation after one week incubation. Arid Land Research and Management, 2020, 34(3): 319–335

[15] Duarte-Nass C , Rebolledo K , Valenzuela T , Kopp M , Jeison D , Rivas M , Azócar L , Torres-Aravena Á , Ciudad G . Application of microbe-induced carbonate precipitation for copper removal from copper-enriched waters: Challenges to future industrial application. Journal of Environmental Management, 2020, 256: 109938

[16] Chen X H , Guo H X , Cheng X H . Heavy metal immobilisation and particle cementation of tailings by biomineralisation. Environmental Geotechnics, 2018, 5(2): 107–113

[17] Hu L , Wang H Y , Xu P , Zhang Y Y . Biomineralization of hypersaline produced water using microbially induced calcite precipitation. Water Research, 2021, 190: 116753

[18] Zhu X J , Li W L , Zhan L , Huang M S , Zhang Q Z , Achal V . The large-scale process of microbial carbonate precipitation for nickel remediation from an industrial soil. Environmental Pollution, 2016, 219: 149–155

[19] Cheng L , Shahin M A , Chu J . Soil bio-cementation using a new one-phase low-pH injection method. Acta Geotechnica, 2019, 14(3): 615–626

[20] Jiang N J , Soga K . The applicability of microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) for internal erosion control in gravel–sand mixtures. Géotechnique, 2017, 67(1): 42–55

[21] Lin H , Zhou M Y , Li B , Dong Y B . Mechanisms, application advances and future perspectives of microbial-induced heavy metal precipitation: A review. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 2023, 178: 105544

[22] Xiao Y , He X , Stuedlein A W , Chu J , Evans T M , van Paassen L A . Crystal growth of MICP through microfluidic chip tests. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2022, 148(5): 06022002

[23] Ma G L , Xiao Y , Chu J , Yin Z Y , Zhou B , Liu H L . Pore-scale investigation of MICP in simplified pore structures through microfluidic tests. Water Resources Research, 2025, 61(2): e2024WR037807

[24] Zhang J X , Xiao Y , Liu H L , Chu J . Role of bacteria on bio-induced calcium carbonate formation: insights from droplet microfluidic experiments. Géotechnique, 2025, 75(6): 787–799

[25] Liu L , Liu H L , Stuedlein A W , Evans T M , Xiao Y . Strength, stiffness, and microstructure characteristics of biocemented calcareous sand. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2019, 56(10): 1502–1513

[26] Xiao Y , Zhang Z C , Stuedlein A W , Evans T M . Liquefaction modeling for biocemented calcareous sand. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2021, 147(12): 04021149

[27] Wang Y J , Jiang N J , Han X L , Doygun O , Du Y J . Shear behavior of bio-cemented calcareous sand treated through bio-stimulation under the direct shear condition. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 2022, 81(10): 413

[28] Fang L Y , Niu Q J , Cheng L , Jiang J X , Yu Y Y , Chu J , Achal V , You T Y . Ca-mediated alleviation of Cd²⁺ induced toxicity and improved Cd²⁺ biomineralization by Sporosarcina pasteurii. Science of the Total Environment, 2021, 787: 147627

[29] Zhao Y , Yao J , Yuan Z M , Wang T Q , Zhang Y Y , Wang F . Bioremediation of Cd by strain GZ-22 isolated from mine soil based on biosorption and microbially induced carbonate precipitation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2017, 24(1): 372–380

[30] US-ASTM . Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System).. ASTM D2487-17, 2017,

[31] Sadighi H , Rowshanzamir M , Banitalebi-Dehkordi M . A multi-aspect application of microwave radiation on rehabilitating and improving the geotechnical properties of polluted-sand-clay mixture. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 2022, 249: 104040

[32] Cheng L , Shahin M A . Stabilisation of oil-contaminated soils using microbially induced calcite crystals by bacterial flocs. Géotechnique Letters, 2017, 7(2): 146–151

[33] van Paassen L A. Biogrout. Ground Improvement by Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree. Delft: Delft University of Technology, 2009

[34] US-ASTM . Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil.. ASTM D2166-06, 2010,

[35] Tessier A , Campbell P G C , Bisson M . Sequential extraction procedure for the speciation of particulate trace metals. Analytical Chemistry, 1979, 51(7): 844–851

[36] Wang Y J , Han X L , Jiang N J , Wang J , Feng J . The effect of enrichment media on the stimulation of native ureolytic bacteria in calcareous sand. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2020, 17(3): 1795–1808

[37] Kang C H , Kwon Y J , So J S . Bioremediation of heavy metals by using bacterial mixtures. Ecological Engineering, 2016, 89: 64–69

[38] Zhang Y , Zhang Q , Wang Y J , Cai G J , Dong X Q , Du Y J , Jiang N J. . Engineering properties and environmental safety of biostimulated MICP-treated lead-contaminated soil.. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 2024, 46(11): 2352–2360

[39] Lv C , Tang C S , Zhang J Z , Pan X H , Liu H . Effects of calcium sources and magnesium ions on the mechanical behavior of MICP-treated calcareous sand: Experimental evidence and precipitated crystal insights. Acta Geotechnica, 2023, 18(5): 2703–2717

[40] Li X X , Wang Y , Tang J J , Li K K . Removal behavior of heavy metals from aqueous solutions via microbially induced carbonate precipitation driven by acclimatized Sporosarcina pasteurii. Applied Sciences, 2022, 12(19): 9958

[41] Mi T W , Peng L G , Yu K Q , Zhao Y X . Enhancement strategies for recycled brick aggregate concrete using MICP and EICP treatments. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023, 79: 107909

[42] Xu F L , Wang D X . Bioremediation potential and primary mechanism of Sporosarcina pasteurii for cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in contaminated tailings. Chemistry and Ecology, 2023, 39(5): 484–505

[43] Hu X S , Liu X X , Qiao L K , Zhang S , Su K W , Qiu Z L , Li X H , Zhao Q C , Yu C H . Study on the spatial distribution of ureolytic microorganisms in farmland soil around tailings with different heavy metal pollution. Science of the Total Environment, 2021, 775: 144946

[44] Shen Z T , McMillan O , Jin F , Al-Tabbaa A . Salisbury biochar did not affect the mobility or speciation of lead in kaolin in a short-term laboratory study. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2016, 316: 214–220

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s). This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep.com.cn