Cyclic response of compacted completely decomposed granite soil by microbially induced carbonate precipitation

Abstract

In this study, the microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) was applied to compacted completely decomposed granite (CDG) soil at both the dry and wet sides of its optimum water content, using fixed concentrations of bacterial suspensions and chemical reagents. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), calcium carbonate content measurements, and cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on the effects of the water content and curing period on the microstructure and mechanical performance of the samples. Testing results indicate that the MICP treatment significantly improves the mechanical performance through calcium carbonate crystals filling structural pores or attaching to the matrix surface, compared to untreated samples. During the 0–6-d active phase, the dry-side permanent strain decreases by more than 12% and that on the wet-side strain by more than 60%. After the 6-d active phase, the permanent strain remains stable due to the completion of calcium carbonate precipitation. The resilient modulus and damping ratio also display the two-phase evolutionary characteristics similar to those of the permanent strain. At a given curing period, the dry-side sample presents a lower permanent strain or a higher resilient modulus compared to the corresponding wet-side sample. Nonetheless, the impact of water content on the damping ratio is not substantial.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

MICP / CDG soil / cyclic triaxial test / initial placement condition / curing period

References

[1] Wang H L , Yin Z Y . High performance prediction of soil compaction parameters using multi expression programming. Engineering Geology, 2020, 276: 105758

[2] Li Y , Guo Z , Wang L , Yang H , Li Y , Zhu J . An innovative eco-friendly method for scour protection around monopile foundation. Applied Ocean Research, 2022, 123: 103177

[3] Fouladi A S , Arulrajah A , Chu J , Horpibulsuk S . Application of Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) technology in construction materials: A comprehensive review of waste stream contributions. Construction & Building Materials, 2023, 388: 131546

[4] Whiffin V S. Microbial CaCO₃ precipitation for the production of biocement. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree, Perth: Murdoch University, 2004

[5] Harkes M P , Van Paassen L A , Booster J L , Whiffin V S , van Loosdrecht M C . Fixation and distribution of bacterial activity in sand to induce carbonate precipitation for ground reinforcement. Ecological Engineering, 2010, 36(2): 112–117

[6] Wang Y , Konstantinou C , Soga K , Biscontin G , Kabla A J . Use of microfluidic experiments to optimize MICP treatment protocols for effective strength enhancement of MICP-treated sandy soils. Acta Geotechnica, 2022, 17(9): 3817–3838

[7] Zhang Q , Ye W , Liu Z , Wang Q , Chen Y . Influence of injection methods on calcareous sand cementation by EICP technique. Construction & Building Materials, 2023, 363: 129724

[8] Zhao C , Xiao Y , He X , Liu H , Liu Y , Chu J . Influence of injection methods on bio-mediated precipitation of carbonates in fracture-mimicking microfluidic chip. Geotechnique, 2025, 75(2): 153–165

[9] Meng H , Shu S , Gao Y , He J , Wan Y . Kitchen waste for Sporosarcina pasteurii cultivation and its application in wind erosion control of desert soil via microbially induced carbonate precipitation. Acta Geotechnica, 2021, 16(12): 4045–4059

[10] Teng F , Sie Y C , Ouedraogo C . Strength improvement in silty clay by microbial-induced calcite precipitation. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 2021, 80(8): 6359–6371

[11] Tian Z , Tang X , Li J , Xiu Z , Xue Z . Improving settlement and reinforcement uniformity of marine clay in electro-osmotic consolidation using microbially induced carbonate precipitation. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 2021, 80(8): 6457–6471

[12] Wang H L , Pathak B , Yin Z Y . Investigation on the microstructure, unconfined compressive strength, and thermal conductivity of compacted CDG soil by MICP treatment during curing. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 2023, 35(6): 04023131

[13] Maston O , Ouahbi T , Taibi S , Hajjar A E , Sapin L , Esnault-Filet A , Duchemin B , Fleureau J M . Effect of MICP treatment on the mechanical properties of clay soils. Transportation Geotechnics, 2025, 50: 101483

[14] Wan Z , Xu W , Bian X , Chen Y . Full-scale mud pumping test of ballastless trackbed under train loading. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2023, 174: 108199

[15] Liu K , Xu S , Wan Z , Wen M , Xue K . Investigation on relationship of geogrid strain and settlement in the GRPS embankment under cyclic loading. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 2025, 53(5): 1108–1121

[16] Wan Z , Bian X , Chen Y . Service performance of ballastless slab track subjected to mud pumping development and polyurethane injection remediation. Construction & Building Materials, 2025, 489: 142211

[17] Xiao P , Liu H , Stuedlein A W , Evans T M , Xiao Y . Effect of relative density and biocementation on cyclic response of calcareous sand. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2019, 56(12): 1849–1862

[18] Xiao Y , Zhang Z , Stuedlein A W , Evans T M . Liquefaction modeling for biocemented calcareous sand. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2021, 147(12): 04021149

[19] Hu J , Xiao Y , He X , Shi J , Liu H , Chu J . Unified equivalent intergranular void ratio for biotreated binary soils in characterising liquefaction resistance. Geotechnique, 2025, 75(11): 1485–1501

[20] Fu T , Haigh S K , Cao B . Application of biocementation to improve a well-graded granular material against cyclic loading. Geotechnique, 2025, 75(11): 1416–1428

[21] Xiao Y , Hu J , Shi J , Liang F . Static and cyclic liquefaction of granular materials considering grain morphology. Transportation Geotechnics, 2023, 42: 101107

[22] Hu J , Xiao Y , Shi J , Stuedlein A W , Evans T M . Small-strain shear modulus and liquefaction resistance of calcareous sand with non-plastic fines. Geotechnique, 2025, 75(10): 1239–1253

[23] ASTM . Standard Test Methods for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Soils Using Sieve Analysis, ASTM D6913-04. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 2009

[24] ASTM . Standard Test Method for Particle Size Distribution of Metal Powders and Related Compounds by Light Scattering, ASTM B822-20. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 2020

[25] ASTM . Standard Practice for Classification of Soil for Engineering Purpose (Unified Soil Classification System), ASTM D2487-17. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 2017

[26] ASTM . Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN·m/m³)), ASTM D698-12. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 2012

[27] Wang H L , Zhang Q Y , Yin Z Y , Jing H . Effect of sand particle size on interface shear behaviour between bio-cemented sand by MICP treatment and steel structure. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2023, 60(3): 269–286

[28] Sun Y H , Wang H L , Meng F Y , Yin C S , Fu X S . Multiscale mechanical behaviour of sand-steel structure interface for deep underground space. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2025, 62: 1–16

[29] Zhang X H , Zhai Z J , Wang H L , Cui Y J , Chen R P . A deformation-dependent model for passive soil arching in sand. Acta Geotechnica, 2025, 20(12): 6495–6513

[30] Delage P , Audiguier M , Cui Y J , Howat M D . Microstructure of a compacted silt. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 1996, 33(1): 150–158

[31] Chen W B , Feng W Q , Yin J H , Borana L . LVDTs-based radial strain measurement system for static and cyclic behavior of geomaterials. Measurement: Journal of the International Measurement Confederation, 2020, 155: 107526

[32] Duong T V , Cui Y J , Tang A M , Dupla J C , Canou J , Calon N , Robinet A . Effects of water and fines contents on the resilient modulus of the interlayer soil of railway substructure. Acta Geotechnica, 2016, 11(1): 51–59

[33] Yin C S , Wang H L , Liu X M , Yu X Q , Kang X , Khasanov A . Monotonic and cyclic mechanical characteristics of reconstituted soil with high liquid limit reinforced by steel slag. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 2025, 84(3): 1–21

[34] Gidel GHornych PBreysse DDenis A. A new approach for investigating the permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular material using the repeated loading triaxial apparatus. Bulletin of the Laboratories of Bridges and Roads, 2001, 233: 5–21, 109–114

[35] Lamas-Lopez F. In-situ and laboratory study on the dynamic behaviour of materials forming conventional railway track beds under increased traffic. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree. Marne-la-Vallée: University of Paris-Est, 2016

[36] Werkmeister S , Dawson A R , Wellner F . Pavement design model for unbound granular materials. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 2004, 130(5): 665–674

[37] Wang H L , Cui Y J , Lamas-Lopez F , Dupla J C , Canou J , Calon N , Saussine G , Aimedieu P , Chen R P . Effects of inclusion contents on resilient modulus and damping ratio of unsaturated track-bed materials. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2017, 54(12): 1672–1681

[38] Chen W B , Feng W Q , Yin J H . Effects of water content on resilient modulus of a granular material with high fines content. Construction & Building Materials, 2020, 236: 117542

[39] Hu F , Xu C , Li H , Li S , Yu Z , Li Y , He X . Particles interaction forces and their effects on soil aggregates breakdown. Soil & Tillage Research, 2015, 147: 1–9

[40] Seed H B , Wong R T , Idriss I M , Tokimatsu K . Moduli and damping factors for dynamic analyses of cohesionless soils. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1986, 112(11): 1016–1032

[41] Rollins K M , Evans M D , Diehl N B , Iii W D D . Shear modulus and damping relationships for gravels. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 1998, 124(5): 396–405

[42] Indraratna B , Vinod J S , Lackenby J . Influence of particle breakage on the resilient modulus of railway ballast. Geotechnique, 2009, 59(7): 643–646

[43] Han Z , Vanapalli S K , Zou W L . Integrated approaches for predicting soil-water characteristic curve and resilient modulus of compacted fine-grained subgrade soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2017, 54(5): 646–663

[44] Khan Z , El Naggar M H , Cascante G . Frequency dependent dynamic properties from resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 2011, 348(7): 1363–1376

[45] Xiao Y , Xiao W , Wu H , Liu Y , Liu H . Fracture of interparticle MICP bonds under compression. International Journal of Geomechanics, 2023, 23(3): 04022316

[46] Wang H L , Yin Z Y . Unconfined compressive strength of bio-cemented sand: state-of-the-art review and MEP-MC-based model development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 315: 128205

[47] Zhao Q , Li L , Li C , Li M , Amini F , Zhang H . Factors affecting improvement of engineering properties of MICP-treated soil catalyzed by bacteria and urease. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 2014, 26(12): 04014094

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s). This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep.com.cn