CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai 600113, India
smithag@serc.res.in
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Received
Accepted
Published
2021-12-22
2022-08-04
2023-02-15
Issue Date
Revised Date
2022-12-07
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Abstract
Textile reinforced mortar is widely used as an overlay for the repair, rehabilitation, and retrofitting of concrete structures. Recently, textile reinforced concrete has been identified as a suitable lining material for improving the durability of existing concrete structures. In this study, we developed a textile-reinforced mortar mix using river sand and evaluated the different characteristics of the textile-reinforced mortar under various exposure conditions. Studies were carried out in two phases. In the first phase, the pullout strength, temperature resistance, water absorption, and compressive and bending strength values of three different textile-reinforced mortar mixes with a single type of textile reinforcement were investigated. In the second phase, the chemical resistance of the mix that showed the best performance in the abovementioned tests was examined for use as an overlay for a concrete substrate. Investigations were performed on three different thicknesses of the textile reinforced mortar overlaid on concrete specimens that were subjected to acidic and alkaline environments. The flexural responses and degradations of the textile reinforced mortar overlaid specimens were examined by performing bending tests. The experimental findings indicated the feasibility of using textile reinforced mortar as an overlay for durable concrete construction practices.
Textile reinforced mortar (TRM), which is popularly known as textile reinforced concrete (TRC) or a fabric reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM), is composed of fine-grained concrete as a matrix and a textile as a reinforcement. This material has been reported to be suitable for many applications owing to its non-corrosiveness, design flexibility, potential for fabricating complex geometries, and ability to make thin sections, thus minimizing the utilization of cement [1–5]. TRC typically consists of one to several textile layers embedded in fine-grained concrete that includes a restricted range of aggregate sizes depending on the textile mesh openings [6,7]. The ingredients used in TRC are significant because alterations in the matrix can change the mechanical performance of the composite [8,9]. The material constituents are of great importance not only for increasing the strength but also for improving the bonding between the matrix and fibers [10]. Various mineral admixtures have been used to develop TRC binders [6]. The concrete matrix used for TRC is different from that of conventional concrete because the maximum size of the aggregate should not be greater than 2 mm [11]. Further, highly flowable concrete is needed to penetrate the openings of the textile reinforcement to provide adequate bonding and stress transfer between the concrete and textile reinforcement [12]. When different aggregate gradations are used, owing to the nature of the mortar used, the possibility of the textiles pulling out of the matrix is one of the aspects that govern the overall performance of the TRM composite.
Currently, TRM is used as an overlay to enhance the structural performances of various concrete components. Furthermore, TRC is considered an ideal material for lining existing concrete structures [13]. When used as a liner for structures, it may be subjected to different temperatures and aggressive environmental conditions. Although textiles have high glass transition temperatures, it is important to assess the nature of a composite at various temperatures. The main limitation of TRC with respect to fire resistance is its smaller thickness (in the range of a few millimeters). Because of this limitation, TRC has been widely used for many load- and non-load-bearing members; however, there is no substantial research on the fire resistance of TRC elements. Hothan and Ehlig [14] and Raoof and Bournas [15] studied the effectiveness of TRC-bonded concrete slabs and beams subjected to high temperature. The effect of high temperature on two dissimilar materials was studied by Raoof and Bournas [16] and Ombres [17]. The structural capacities of different TRC-bonded materials were also investigated by Maroudas and Papanicolaou [18] and Ombres et al. [19]. de Domenico et al. [20] studied the bond behavior of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) and FRCM systems under different environmental conditions and concluded that FRCM-bonded systems are not as sensitive to environmental conditions as FRP systems. In their study, the bonded FRP and FRCM were cured underwater by partial immersion for a period of 31 d at 30 and 50 °C, and 100% relative humidity. It was reported that at the higher temperature of 50 °C, the bonding was degraded in the FRP-bonded system, thus reducing the bond capacity [21,22]. The reason for the debonding was reported to be an alteration in the stress transfer mechanism at the bottom of the specimen owing to the temperature effect. Furthermore, an increase in the vertical deflection during the precracking stage led to debonding [21]. Furthermore, it has been reported that in FRCM-bonded systems, longer exposure periods yield higher bond strengths owing to the formation of additional hydration compounds [22]. Durable construction using TRC is possible by selecting appropriate coating materials for textiles in TRC applications to ensure that they are less affected by aggressive environmental conditions. In this context, the durability of dry or impregnated textiles based on their chemical resistance has been reported in some studies [23–25]. However, considering the interaction of the mortar and textiles in TRM composites, the physical contact with a matrix composed of inorganic binding materials has been less studied, with most of the studies involving aging tests of glass fibers [26–31]. In the study reported by Scheffler [32], alkali resistant (AR) glass fibers coated with styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) exhibited less degradation in an alkaline solution.
1.1 Research significance
The available literature showed that quartz sand and quartz powder are commonly used as important ingredients in TRM, making it costly. In this study, tests were conducted to replace quartz sand with river sand to make TRM more cost effective. Most of the available research on TRM has focused on temperature studies of TRM-concrete/masonry bonded elements, not on TRM alone. In this study, the pullout response, temperature resistance, water resistance, and bending strength of TRM mixed with river sand were tested. Although studies on TRM overlays for concrete strengthening and their structural performances are available, durability studies on TRM-overlaid specimens, especially under aggressive environments, are very limited. Through this study, the authors attempted to make a concise examination of various parameters that are relevant to the durability of TRM when used as an overlay.
2 Materials and methods
To develop an economical TRM mix, attempts were made to use river sand with different maximum sizes such as 1.18 and 2.36 mm instead of the conventionally used quartz sand and quartz powder, which are costlier materials in many countries. In the present study, various characteristics of TRM and TRM-overlaid concrete were investigated. The pullout strength, water absorption, compressive strength, bending strength, and temperature resistance (between 200 and 1000 °C) values of three TRM mixes with a single type of textile reinforcement were investigated in the first phase. Subsequently, the chemical resistance of the TRM mix and textile that showed the best performance in the first phase of the study was investigated in acidic and alkaline environments in the second phase of the study. The flexural characteristics of TRM-overlaid concrete specimens subjected to a chemical environment were evaluated.
2.1 Textile-reinforced mortar
A commercially available alkali-resistant glass textile with inclusion of zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) has a tensile strength of 600 MPa, an ultimate strain of 1.2%, and an elastic modulus of 59 GPa. The mortar used in the TRM consisted of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) conforming to Indian Standard 12269 (2013) [33], class F fly ash that complied with the requirements of ASTM C618 [34], silica fume that conformed to ASTM C1240 [35], a polycarboxylate-based super plasticizer, fine aggregates with sizes in the range of 0.2–2.36 mm, and water. Three mixes were considered for the development of the TRM in this study. Initially, mixes were developed with conventional mix proportions, which were found to be costly because of the presence of quartz sand and quartz powder. However, it is difficult to eliminate quartz powder and quartz sand, because they are used for the proper bonding between the textile reinforcement and matrix. Quartz sand and quartz powder are the two main ingredients that increase the cost of the mix, and attempts have been made to use an alternative to these materials. Thus, two mixes were prepared with river sand: one with sand passing through a 2.36 mm sieve and another with river sand having a gradation equivalent to that of quartz sand. When using the fine aggregate, quartz sand, and quartz powder, a maximum particle size of 600 µm was used. River sand passing through 600 µm and 2.36 mm sieves conforming to the Indian standard (IS 383:2016) was used separately for two different mixes. The particle size distributions (PSDs) of the quartz sand and river sand are shown in Fig.1. The PSDs show that the quartz sand was smaller than the river sand. Thus, three mixes were prepared, with Mix 1 consisting of quartz sand and quartz powder, Mix 2 completely replacing the quartz sand and quartz powder with river sand having a gradation similar to that of the quartz sand, and Mix 3 consisting of river sand that passed through a 2.36 mm sieve. The mix proportions used for these three mixes are listed in Tab.1.
2.2 Details of specimens and tests
Mortar cubes (50 mm) and cylinders (50 mm × 100 mm) were cast to determine the mechanical properties of the three different developed mixes. Specimens with the dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 25 mm were used for the water absorption test. The specimens were immersed in water for 24 h, and after their surfaces were wiped off, their weights were recorded (M1). The specimens were then oven dried at (65 ± 1) °C for 24 h. The test setups for the specimens under water and in an oven are shown in Fig.2. The specimen weights were measured at regular intervals. The specimens were removed from the oven when two consecutive weight measurements were the same. The weight obtained after oven-drying was recorded as M2. The increase in weight as a percentage of the original weight was expressed as its absorption:
The pullout strengths of the textile yarn in the three mixes were investigated by conducting tests on strands embedded in cement. A 250 mm long piece of yarn was embedded in each 20 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm mortar specimen, with care taken to ensure that it was at the center of the test specimen. A typical test setup is shown in Fig.3.
To investigate the temperature resistance of the TRM, 100 mm × 25 mm specimens were subjected to temperatures ranging from 200 to 1000 °C. Fig.4 shows images of Mix 1, Mix 2, and Mix 3 after being subjected to 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 °C. These were also examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
To investigate the influence of the mix, scaled-up TRM panels were considered. All three mixes were reinforced with one layer of textile reinforcement. To conduct bending tests, 1 m × 0.4 m × 0.025 m panels were cast. Fig.5(a) shows the sequence when casting the TRM panels, which included the placement of the textile, application and leveling of the mortar, and finished TRM panel. The test setup for the four-point bending tests of the TRM panels is shown in Fig.5(b). Linear variable displacement transducers were used to measure the deflection at the first crack and the maximum deflection.
2.2.1 Phase 2: Chemical resistance studies on TRM-overlaid concrete
To investigate the chemical resistance of the TRM overlay on concrete, three thicknesses (10, 15, and 20 mm) were considered. The TRM adhered to the M30 grade base concrete. The overall specimen dimensions of the M30 concrete were 500 mm (length) × 100 mm (width) × 25 mm (thick), and TRM overlay thicknesses of 10, 15, and 20 mm were tested. In all the specimens, three textile layers were used as reinforcements in the TRM. The overlay concrete was cast first and demolded after 24 h. Then, TRM of a suitable thickness was cast on top of the concrete without any additional mortar. The TRM-overlaid specimens were cured for 28 d.
Different pH values for acidic and alkaline conditions (4, 6, 8, and 10) were used to simulate the chemical environmental conditions in the laboratory. Nitric acid and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellets were used to prepare the solutions with different pH values. Concentrated nitric acid was diluted in water and NaOH pellets were dissolved in water and appropriately mixed to obtain the required pH. After regular water curing for 28 d, the TRM-overlaid specimens were immersed in these pH solutions for 28 and 56 d and their flexural behaviors were tested. The specimens were tested using a servo hydraulic testing machine with a capacity of 250 kN. A four-point bending test with an effective span of 400 mm was performed for each test specimen. A schematic of the loading arrangement and the test setup used for the flexural testing of the TRM-overlaid concrete are shown in Fig.6. The loading was applied under the displacement control mode with a loading of 0.5 mm/min. The mid-point deflection was measured using an electromechanical dial gauge with a travel distance of 50 mm. The deflection and load from the test machine were recorded using a dedicated data-acquisition system. The sampling rate for data acquisition was 5 Hz.
3 Results and discussion
The compressive, split tensile, and flexural strengths of the mixtures listed in Tab.1 are presented in Tab.2. From these results, it was found that the strengths of Mix 2 and Mix 3 were comparable to those of Mix 1. Owing to the elimination of quartz sand and quartz powder in Mix 2 and Mix 3, the costs of these mixes were estimated to be less (approximately 50%) than that of Mix 1. Furthermore, based on the strength results listed in Tab.2, the strengths of Mix 2 and Mix 3 were comparable to those of Mix 1, indicating the insignificance of the absence of the quartz sand and quartz powder that were present in Mix 1.
The water absorption values of Mix 1, Mix 2, and Mix 3 were 5.4%, 4.9%, and 3.9%, respectively. These values were within the limits prescribed by ASTM C1585 [36]. The results showed that, in terms of water absorption, Mix 2 and Mix 3 made with river sand performed better than Mix 1. It should be noted that besides decreasing the water absorption, the use of river sand reduced the cost of the mixes to a great extent.
Based on the results for the compressive strength, bending strength, water absorption, and temperature resistance, the type of fine aggregate used had less influence on the performance of the mix. Hence, it can be concluded that river sand could conveniently be used in place of quartz sand. As listed in Tab.3, although the split tensile and flexural strengths of Mix 2 and Mix 3 with river sand were marginally lower than those of Mix 1, the compressive strengths were comparable. A microscopic study carried out on the TRM samples showed the infiltration of the matrix into the textile. Based on the temperature exposure studies, the exposure of the TRM to high temperatures led to a loss in the strength of the textile. At a low temperature of 200 °C, it was found that the textile maintained its strength, as there was no deterioration observed in the fibers. A similar behavior was observed in the work reported by Colombo et al. [37] for TRM subjected to high temperatures.
Furthermore, the influence of temperature on the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) indicated the disintegration of the bond between the fiber bundles and matrix. It was observed that the width of the ITZ increased with the temperature. Based on the disintegration of the textile reinforcement in various mixes at different temperatures, the damage to the textile reinforcement in Mix 3 was found to be high. This may have been due to the poor integration of the fiber with the matrix owing to the coarser fine aggregate used in Mix 3. However, macroscale testing indicated the superior performance of Mix 3 in the development of TRM panels. SEM images taken at various temperatures indicated the resistance of this fiber up to 800 °C. However, beyond 800 °C, the textile reinforcement burnt and vanished. While considering the bending behavior of the TRM panels, the properties of the mix with river sand were found to be satisfactory in terms of the ultimate load-carrying capacity and deflection. A comparison of the properties of Mix 1, Mix 2, and Mix 3 showed that the bending capacity of Mix 3 was comparable to that of Mix 1. The deflection data and load at the first crack also showed that Mix 3 was comparable or even superior to Mix 1, which was made with quartz powder and quartz sand. Its lower water absorption and good temperature resistance also make Mix 3 a good candidate to replace conventional mixes.
Furthermore, in the pullout tests performed, it was noticed that the mix consisting of quartz sand and quartz powder underwent more displacement than the mix with river sand, as shown in Fig.7. With respect to the residual load-carrying capacity, Mix 2 was brittle, whereas Mix 3 and Mix 1 showed strength retention in the post-peak response. Furthermore, it was observed that the yarn broke above the mortar specimen in all cases. Typical failure patterns of the failed specimens are shown in Fig.8.
The temperature resistance and associated deterioration of the matrix and textile were carefully observed in each temperature range. Samples cut from the panels were subjected to temperatures ranging from 200 to 1000 °C. As expected, material degradation was observed in all three types of mixes with increasing temperature. Visual observations of these samples showed changes in the color of the matrix. Microcracks were formed on the surfaces of the specimens subjected to 600 °C, as shown in Fig.9. It was observed that there were fewer microcracks in the Mix 3 specimens. At a very high temperature of 1000 °C, the fibers in the textile were completely burnt and disappeared. Furthermore, a closer look at the material, as shown in Fig.10, showed the formation of cracks on the surface. This crack formation was more distinct in Mix 3, which was composed of 2.36 mm fine aggregates. It was also noticed that the fiber disintegrated at 600 °C, as shown in Fig.10.
SEM images of the three types of samples subjected to different temperatures clearly showed the temperature resistance of the fibers up to 400 °C and their disintegration at higher temperatures. Fig.11 shows typical SEM images of the cross-sections of the fibers after subjecting them to 200–600 °C. It shows that at 200 and 400 °C, the impregnated matrix within the textile fibers was intact, but beyond these temperatures, matrix disintegration was observed. Fig.12 shows the damage caused by different temperatures in the ITZ. Fig.13 shows the ITZ in the transverse direction. Based on the SEM images in Fig.11–Fig.13, there was no significant degradation in the fiber at 200 °C, whereas the damage was greater at 600 °C.
In addition to characterizing the TRM at the microstructural level, bending tests were carried out on all three mixes to characterize the TRM at the macro scale. The ultimate load until failure, maximum deflection, and load and deflection at the first crack were observed during the bending test of the TRM panel, and the results are presented in Tab.3. A typical case of a specimen after failure is shown in Fig.14. All the specimens showed similar failure patterns. The ultimate load-carrying capacity of the river sand-incorporated TRM specimen (Mix 3) was almost the same as those of the other two specimens made of Mix 1 and Mix 2.
Based on the tests conducted on the three mixes (Mix 1, Mix 2, and Mix 3) in the phase I testing, it was understood that the effect of replacing quartz powder and quartz sand with river sand on the mechanical and durability properties was insignificant. Hence, Mix 3 was chosen for further study to develop a TRM overlay.
A four-point bending test was conducted on TRM-overlaid specimens on the 28th and 56th days after subjecting them to different pH solutions. Parameters such as the thickness of the TRM overlay and its exposure to acidic and alkaline environments were assessed. In addition, control specimens were immersed in water and tested after 28 and 56 d. After 56 d, the control specimens showed an increased load-carrying capacity compared with the specimens after 28 d (Fig.15). Further, it was noticed that the load-carrying capacities of both the 28 and 56 d specimens were higher when the thickness of the TRM overlay was greater.
The flexural behaviors of the control TRM-overlaid specimens after 28 and 56 d showed increases in the load-carrying capacities with increases in the thickness of the TRM specimens. Fig.16 and Fig.17 show the maximum load-carrying capacities of TRM overlays with various thicknesses (10, 15, and 20 mm) subjected to acidic and alkaline environments. The flexural capacities of the specimens subjected to different pH ranges for a period of 28 d showed load improvements when the thickness was 10 mm. In the case of the 15 mm thick overlaid specimens, the flexural capacity was slightly lower at pH 4 and pH 8, and the flexural capacity of the 20 mm thick overlay was almost the same as that of the control specimen. After 28 d the effect of the TRM overlay thickness was validated. In contrast, except for the control specimens, the load-carrying capacities of the TRM-overlaid specimens decreased drastically after 56 d for all thicknesses.
Because TRM is emerging as a potential material for lining wastewater ponds, the effect when it is exposed to aggressive environments is significant. To study the practical conditions in the field, the use of TRM as a liner for existing concrete substrates and the characteristics of the TRM overlay need to be studied. In such applications, TRM can be exposed to various temperatures and aggressive environmental conditions. Hence, in the present study, the pH of a realistic aggressive environment such as that of a wastewater pond was simulated in the laboratory. TRM-overlaid specimens under acid and alkaline exposures were examined to determine their load vs. deflection responses. The load versus deflection responses of the TRM specimens after 28 and 56 d are shown in Fig.18 and Fig.19, respectively. In both acidic and alkaline environments, the stiffness values were the same for the 10, 15, and 20 mm thick TRM-overlaid specimens. For the specimens tested on the 28th day, as shown in Fig.18, after acid exposure at pH 4 and pH 6, the deflection abilities were also almost the same. For alkali exposure, a pH of 10 was found to be more favorable for both the 15 and 20 mm thick TRM-overlaid specimens. As shown in Fig.19, for the specimens immersed for 56 d, a significant change in the deflection pattern was observed. After acid exposure at pH 4, all the specimens were brittle, as observed from the post-peak response of the load deflection curve. As observed in Fig.18, both the 15 and 20 mm thick TRM-overlaid specimens were found to be less brittle than the 10 mm thick TRM-overlaid specimen.
Exposing TRM-overlaid concrete to a chemical environment for 28 d produced a significant reduction in the maximum flexural capacity only for the pH 4 exposure, with a maximum value of 2.5%. After immersion in pH 6, pH 8, and pH 10 solutions, there was no reduction in the maximum flexural load-carrying capacity compared to the control specimens tested at the 28th and 56th days. The 20 mm thick TRM overlay was found to have the maximum load-carrying capacity after exposure to a pH 8 solution. It was found that the TRM overlays subjected to acidic and alkaline environments for a longer duration (56 d) tended to show reduced flexural capacities, with reductions in the deformation capacities in all cases.
Based on the bending tests of the TRM-overlaid concrete, it was noted that a longer exposure to acidic and alkaline environments reduced the load-carrying capacity. This may have been due to the differential expansion of the two different materials weakening the bond in the concrete interface overlay. In the cement-to-cement bonded TRM overlay system immersed in acidic and alkaline solutions (wet environment), moisture diffused through the pores and cracks and reached the interface region. This may have been due to the weakening of the interface between the TRM overlay and concrete as a result of the continuous immersion of the TRM-overlaid specimens in the pH solution. The concrete immersed in water for early curing tended to swell slightly. Further, a weight gain was observed (results not reported) after subjecting the TRM to various pH curing conditions. This weight gain may be attributed to the formation of new hydration products, as reported in a previous study [13]. In cement-to-cement bonded TRM systems, during long-term exposure to acidic and alkaline environments, both the TRM and concrete substrate tended to swell. However, the textile fiber restricted the movement of the cement matrix in the interface region, leading to the swelling of the concrete substrate. Consequently, the interface region was weakened, and hence, the long-term exposure of the overlay specimen produced differential swelling. Stiffness degradation was observed after 56 d of exposure (long-term) in all the pH ranges.
The deflection capacities of the TRM-overlaid concrete specimens subjected to different pH solutions were higher at 28 d than at 56 d. Conventionally, cement-to-cement-based overlay systems exhibit a weaker tensile strength, and debonding is perpendicular to the interface between the overlay and concrete. However, in the case of the TRM overlay on the concrete substrate, the presence of continuous fibers in the textile provided a higher tensile strength at the interface. Although multiple cracks were formed in the TRM overlay, the final failure mode of the TRM-overlaid concrete was due to a single crack near the midspan. Furthermore, the fracture surface within the TRM thickness was found to extend to the middle of the concrete substrate (as shown in Fig.20). This indicated that the shear bond strength between the concrete and TRM overlay interface was stronger in the control specimens. In the case of specimens subjected to acidic and alkaline environments for 28 and 56 d, the interface bond was found to be slightly reduced. The reduced shear bond strength at the interface may be attributed to the continuous ingress of acidic and alkaline solutions in the interface region. It was also noticed that there was no sign of delamination throughout the length of the TRM-overlaid specimen even after the rupture of the textile fiber. The interface between the TRM overlay and concrete was intact in the single crack zone, even after the complete failure throughout the thickness and exposure. In most of the specimens, the rupture of the textile fiber was observed. The fiber was fully strained, leading to a rupture because of the maximum moment in the constant-bending zone [16]. Similar failure patterns were observed in all the specimens subjected to acidic and alkaline environments.
4 Conclusions
Based on investigations conducted on TRM and TRM-overlaid concrete, the following conclusions were drawn.
1) TRM can be produced using conventional river sand rather than costly quartz sand. The tests carried out on the river sand TRM mix to determine the pullout strength, water absorption, temperature resistance, and bending capacity showed that it had performances that were comparable to those of the quartz sand mixes.
2) In TRM subjected to 200–400 °C, the textile fibers were protected by the mortar layer, and remained intact. Thus, TRM could be used at elevated temperatures up to 400 °C, beyond which the mortar is more prone to disintegration, and the textile fibers start disintegrating.
3) In the TRM-overlaid concrete subjected to a control environment, there was no indication of debonding/delamination in the interface region, even after the rupture of the embedded textile fiber in the overlay. However, minor delamination was observed in the TRM overlay exposed to an aggressive environment.
This work laid the groundwork for further investigations that combine various environmental and loading conditions, along with different binders, textiles, and thicknesses, to develop a durable framework for the use of TRM as an overlay in various applications.
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