Development of therapeutic cancer vaccines based on cancer immunity cycle

Jing Zhang; Yiyuan Zheng; Lili Xu; Jing Gao; Ziqi Ou; Mingzhao Zhu; Wenjun Wang

doi:10.1007/s11684-025-1134-6

Front. Med. ›› 2025, Vol. 19 ›› Issue (4) : 553 -599. DOI: 10.1007/s11684-025-1134-6

REVIEW

Development of therapeutic cancer vaccines based on cancer immunity cycle

Jing Zhang ¹^,²^,³^,^‡
, Yiyuan Zheng ¹^,²^,³^,^‡
, Lili Xu ²^,³^,^‡
, Jing Gao ²^,³^,^‡
, Ziqi Ou ²^,³^,^‡
, Mingzhao Zhu ²^,³^,^†^,^‡
, Wenjun Wang ²^,^†^,^‡

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Abstract

Therapeutic cancer vaccines have experienced a resurgence over the past ten years. Cancer vaccines are typically designed to enhance specific stages of the cancer-immunity cycle, primarily by activating the immune system to promote tumor regression and overcome immune resistance. In this review, we summarize the significant recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy based on the cancer-immunity cycle, including the effector cell function, infiltration, initiation, and exhaustion. We summarize the identification of tumor antigens and their delivery through cancer vaccines. We discuss how specific stages of the cancer-immunity cycle have been leveraged to augment anti-tumor immune responses and improve vaccine efficacy. Additionally, the impact of aging and myelosuppression, two prevalent forms of immunological stress, on the effectiveness of therapeutic cancer vaccines is deliberated. Finally, we summarize the current status of various therapeutic cancer vaccines at different clinical trial phases.

Keywords

therapeutic cancer vaccines / cancer-immunity cycle / cancer neoantigen / combination therapy / aging / myelosuppression

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Jing Zhang,Yiyuan Zheng,Lili Xu,Jing Gao,Ziqi Ou,Mingzhao Zhu,Wenjun Wang. Development of therapeutic cancer vaccines based on cancer immunity cycle. Front. Med., 2025, 19(4): 553-599 DOI:10.1007/s11684-025-1134-6