This paper delves into the ancient concept of shi yan zhi (poetry expressing aspirations) within Chinese poetry. It examines the precise meaning of zhi, the dialectical relationship between yan and zhi, and the historical development of “poetry expressing aspirations.” It further looks at how this foundational concept underpins the logical construction of Chinese poetic tradition, reaffirming its historical significance as the“manifesto” of Chinese poetics.

In recent years, “aesthetics of atmospheres,” a concept introduced from Western aesthetics, has emerged in aesthetic studies, offering a new perspective to examine ancient Chinese poetry. In poetry, atmospheric beauty is neither fixed nor rationalized; rather, it is pervasive and ubiquitous, much like a mist. Atmosphere is something spatial but primarily something emotional. Atmosphere creation is the products of a poet’s emotional expression evoked by external objects; thus, evocation (gan-xing) is a catalyst for creating atmospheres. At its core, evocation is the process by which a poet is emotionally stimulated at the sight of external objects and generates a desire to express such emotions. In this process, the poet is connected with the outside world through senses such as sight and hearing and is presented with abundant physical images. When these physical images are incorporated into poems, they become atmospheric agents. In poetry, atmospheres represent the unity of emotions and intentions. They are a poet’s situational aesthetic experiences. The statement, “If there is no self in poetry, how can we possibly have poetry” holds significant theoretical importance in aesthetics. Synesthesia plays a crucial role during the creation of atmospheric beauty in poetry. By employing synesthesia, a poet can greatly enhance the tension in poetic language, extending the poetic beauty beyond a singular sensory experience, and creating rich atmospheres that blend sensations such as sound, color, and taste.

The phrase, shi yan zhi (poetry expressing aspirations) is ancient China’s first ontology of poetry, and therefore its significance should be examined from the ontological perspective. This paper explores the historical context in which this theory is created in three respects: the maturity of the artistic form that integrates poetry, music, and dance, the establishment of governance through an education system, and the establishment of an ethical system. This paper holds that as an ancient and classical theory, shi yan zhi was embraced and carried forward by the scholar-officials of the Spring and Autumn Period when reciting poems, and later was cited and further expanded by the pre-Qin philosophers. Zhi is the unique attribute of The Book of Odes to distinguish it from other classics. This paper also investigates the evolution history from shi yan zhi to the six music language skills and six forms of poetry described in “The Office of Spring” in The Rites of Zhou, as well as the six essential elements mentioned in the Introduction to Mao’s Version of The Book of Odes, highlighting the contribution of “The Record of Music” in The Book of Rites to the development of shi yan zhi．

During the pre-Qin period, shi yan zhi (poetry expressing aspirations) was not a poetic concept. It primarily served to shape Confucian ideology, carrying significant discourse implications. The practices of shi yan zhi and bi zhi in religious rituals held important implications for poem reciting, a prevalent activity during the banquet ceremonies in the Spring and Autumn Period and its various forms. Together, they established the rites and music tradition characterized by yanshuo (speeches). This tradition further established the status of The Book of Odes as a classic, furnishing high-ranking officials and Confucian scholars with legitimacy and rich discourse resources to develop new ideologies. The different interpretations and applications of shi yan zhi resulted in diverse discourse models, such as duanzhang-quyi (to interpret out of context), xin’er youzheng (being reliable and borne out by evidence), wenwang yinyan (no word, no expression of thoughts) and yiyi-nizhi (interpreting a writing from one’s perspective). Through these different interpretations and applications, the scholarly-official class established multiple values and objectives, such as liyan buxiu (advocating lasting noble ideas untouched by time), xing-guan-qun yuan (stimulation, contemplation, communication, and criticism), shang you (befriending those superior to oneself), fa hu qing, zhi hu li yi (starting with feelings and control with propriety). In the process of building a unified ideology in the Han Dynasty, the “Introduction to Mao’s Version of The Book of Odes” advocated the unity of qing (sentiment) and zhi(aspiration), infusing shi yan zhi with connotations of enlightenment as well as extolment and satirical criticism. This advocacy redefined the political authority and discourse models of the scholar-official class, objectively unveiling the literary features of poetry, such as evoking an emotional response and commencing the practice of education through poetry teaching.

The existing research of literature on sound description in classical Chinese poetry has predominantly centered around Tang poetry and its lyrical aesthetics, with a particular focus on recurring typified images such as “the call of the cuckoo,” “the howl of the ape,” “the toll of the bell,” and “the pitter-patter of the night rain.” The research paradigm has been somewhat one-dimensional. This paper examines the poems of Fan Chengda, a poet from the Southern Song Dynasty, to showcase the new exploration that Song poetry has made in sound description. Fan’s poetry, characterized by its realistic portrayal of everyday life, offers rich descriptions of the “sounds of urban life”—An imagery closely intertwined with the urban forms and commercial culture of the Song Dynasty. Through detailed narratives, Fan reinforces the emotional connotations and symbolic meaning of this imagery. Departing from the traditional focus on artistic conception prevalent in classical Chinese poetry, Fan’s work highlights the depiction of reality and affinity for everyday life. By presenting real-world sounds in a distorted manner, drawing on the psychological construct of “dreams,” Fan carries forward the artistic expression pioneered by the Northern Song poet Huang Tingjian. Moving beyond the lyrical aesthetics of Tang poetry marked by the “fusion of emotion and the natural setting,” Fan explores a novel approach, articulating his inner world through the medium of sound, showcasing the distinctive artistic qualities of Song poetry.

In ancient Chinese literature, poetry is the primary vehicle for lyrical expression. Although they have been traditionally deemed pure lyrical works, the nineteen ancient poems contain narrative elements that have been explored in prior research endeavors. An examination of these poems from the perspective that Chinese literature is characterized by the complementary interplay of lyrical and narrative traditions can help develop a more nuanced understanding of Chinese literary works. Moreover, it can deepen the perception that Chinese literary history is not dominated by the lyrical tradition but is defined by the intricate harmony and mutual enrichment between the lyrical and narrative traditions.

By closely examining the literary works of the Song Dynasty, such as prose, poetry, rhyme-prose, lyrics, notes, and miscellaneous theses, this paper combines historical and literary evidence to rediscover the 13 types of soundscapes and their corresponding spaces in the Bianjing City, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty, and it reveals the causes and historical-cultural significance of these soundscapes. Focusing on the key issues of soundscapes, this paper analyzes the sound spaces, identities, discourses, and literary achievements depicted in the writings about Bianjing. It argues that the “Bianjing Spectacle” of vendors’ cries described by the Southern Song people can be used as a summary of the soundscape characteristics of Bianjing. Furthermore, it interprets the special silence, crying, and the absence of the sounds of production from an aesthetic perspective. By rediscovering, analyzing, and interpreting the soundscapes of Bianjing, this paper reveals significant differences between the Tang and Song dynasties at the sound level and differentiates various “auditory communities.” It thereby demonstrates the portrayal of Bianjing in Song literature, addresses theoretical hot topics in literature and geography, and builds on Marx’s arguments to propose that a thorough understanding of history, the world, and ourselves requires an in depth study of the soundscapes in literature.

Guan Hanqing is a typical representative of the literati who fell into the lower end of society during the transition from Jin to Yuan. To fight against authority and wickedness, he pretended to be cynical and unconventional and created a series of plays in a wild and humorous manner, demonstrating his distinct and independent character. The social, historical, and romantic dramas he crafted with dedication and passion reflect the spirit of his time, which reviled darkness and yearned for enlightenment. The women in real-world life and historical heroes in his dramas are imbued with a spirit of upholding justice, a reverence for freedom, and a readiness to take bold action, shining with the radiance of cultural transformation and even humanistic liberation in recent antiquity.

In Western civilization, as exemplified by ancient Greece, the primitive imagery of plants ceased to appear in daily life. Nevertheless, in China, the primitive imagery of plants that originated and flourished in primitive times never ceased to prevail even after entering the civilized era. Merged with rationality, it gave rise to the humanistic concepts of “inspiring imagery” (xing-xiang) and “entrusting one’s thoughts and feelings to imagery” (ji-xiang), as represented by the depiction of plants in works like The Book of Odes and Odes of Chu. This was due to China’s unique civilization origin and early civilization development pattern. According to the concepts of “inspiring imagery” and “entrusting one’s thoughts and feelings to imagery” that emerged in the civilized and rational era, individual emotions and independent personalities can inspire or be entrusted to imagery, while imagery represents the racial collective consciousness rooted in the long-standing tradition and imbued with religious, ethical, and political connotations in the context of kinship-based governance. As typical artistic expressions formed during China’s Axial Age, “inspiring imagery” and “entrusting one’s thoughts and feelings to imagery” related to the depiction of plants have significantly contributed to shaping China’s distinctive aesthetic preferences, nourishing literary and artistic creations spanning over two millennia since the Qin and Han dynasties, and forging the cultural and psychological structures of the Chinese nation.

“Chanting to express one’s qing (emotions) and xing (natural inclination)” holds a central position in a series of lyrical theories in Chinese classical poetics. Based on the philosophy of emotions and dispositions, this concept marks the development from the expression of aspirations and emotions in general and collective poetics prevalent in the pre-Qin period to the lyrical theory of individual poetics. The poetry of literati in the Han and Wei dynasties originated from the view of “expressing aspirations” and gave rise to the view of “springing from emotions.” During the Southern and Northern dynasties, poetic thought centered on qing and xing began to be established, and people often associated poetry with “chanting to express one’s qing and xing” in addition to the concepts of “expressing aspirations” and “springing from emotions.” The poetics of the Tang Dynasty absorbed the view of “Introduction to Mao’s Version of The Book of Odes” on the ballads and court hymns composed in the decline of the Zhou Dynasty and the theory of qing and xing from the Southern and Northern dynasties. Its fundamental assertion regarding poetry is “chanting to express one’s qing and xing,” and it endowed the traditional theory of qing and xing with an emphasis on individuality and a reverence for natural aesthetics. Despite advocating the didactic purpose, the poetics of the Tang Dynasty essentially aligned with the ballads composed in the decline of the Zhou Dynasty, “chanting to express one’s qing and xing.” In the Song Dynasty, the theory of qing and xing was combined with individual ethical essence, serving as the ideological foundation of the emphasis on reason in Song poetry. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, poets still followed the traditional theory of qing and xing, considering qing and xing as the foundation of poetry. Among them, the school of “expressing one’s inner self” emphasized the natural expression of individuality and valued inspiration and innovation.

The Lyric Collection on Objects of the Tea Smoke Pavilion is an anthology that Zhu Yizun compiled in his later years by carefully selecting object-depicting lyrics he composed throughout his life. Approximately 70 percent of the works were created before he participated in the imperial examination in 1679. This indicates that this anthology does not fully reflect the characteristics of the lyrics he penned in his later years. The collection title “Tea Smoke Pavilion,” as revealed in The Lyric Collection of the Serenity Dwelling, reflects the poet’s distinctive approach to expressing emotions through depicting objects. A detailed examination of Zhu’s works from the perspectives of textual structure, language, tone pattern and rhyming demonstrates that Zhu has consistently adhered to the same guiding principle when composing object-depicting lyrics. He has elevated the technique of “objectification,” pioneered by the poets of the Southern Song Dynasty to a new realm, crafting a unique beauty in object-depicting lyrics, which is different from the beauty of Song lyrics. His success is rooted in his emotional experiences depicted in The Serenity Dwelling Collection. His relentless exploration in artistic forms has provided a source of inspiration for scholars of later generations to explore how to convey personal sentiments. It also offers an opportunity to reflect on the merits and demerits regarding the development of object-depicting lyrics during the Qing Dynasty.

In the second year of the Shangyuan period (761), Du Fu wrote a quartet of poems on sick or withered trees. They are “The Sick Cypress,” “The Withered Palms,” “The Sick Orange Tree,” and “The Withered Nanmu Tree.” Different from his previous practice of using trees to embody personal aspirations, the poet employed sick or withered trees to allude social realities. These poems, rich with profound contemplation on individuals, society, and the Tang Dynasty, cover many important topics, such as the poet’s bleak future, the decline of people’s livelihoods, the immorality of rulers, and even the decline of the Tang Dynasty. These poems reveal his disappointment with the future of his country and his personal ambitions. This disenchantment reflects the pivotal shift in Du Fu’s later thoughts, revealing the impetus behind his relinquishment of political aspirations in favor of poetic creation. In this regard, this quartet of poems is the most thought-provoking exploration, with an undeniable value among Du Fu’s later works.

Both the fu (narrative) writers and novelists in the Han and Wei periods excelled in observing and selecting “situations” and forming intertextuality in text creation. The common structure shared by Han and Wei fu and novels features a question-and-answer format that contributes to the “fictionality” and narrative development and a “particularly brilliant ending” that is instrumental in providing wise advice and expressing emotions. Fu works, through their classic themes, story arrangements, and plot settings in telling the tales of individuals or the supernatural, inspired novel creation in the Wei and Jin periods. Furthermore, fu works may contain novelistic allusions, while novels may quote fu works and contain stories involving fu composition. They are “similar in style and same in structure,” contributing to the prosperity of early Chinese literature through fictionality and exaggeration, with paradigmatic significance in the construction of “situations” in Chinese narrative literature.

The rhapsodies on the mind (xin-fu) is a major category of the rhapsody (fu) genre during the Wei and Jin dynasties. Those describing human sentimental psychology are known as the rhapsodies on thoughts (gan-fu). The rhapsodies on thoughts from this period embody a special proposition on how human aesthetic experience arises, which is termed as evocation (gan-xing). Evocation involves two dimensions: responding to objects (gan-wu) and responding to seasons (gan-shi). Together, they form the basic framework or mechanism that generates the abstract aesthetic experience in the rhapsodies on thoughts. More specifically, the rhapsodies on thoughts reveal five types of aesthetic experience generated: (1) aesthetic emotions triggered by natural sights; (2) philosophical insights triggered by natural sights; (3) aesthetic emotions triggered by social environments; (4) aesthetic experience triggered by natural sights and social environments; and (5) anti-evocation experience, namely an aesthetic response to the natural world triggered by specific scenes in life. These five evocation models broadly cover the aesthetic experience generated by the rhapsodies on thoughts from this period. First and foremost, evocation reveals the internal mechanism that generates aesthetic experience—external things evoke one’s inner feelings, thus creating aesthetic appreciation. Furthermore, it uncovers the normative significance of natural aesthetic appreciation as the prerequisite for artistic aesthetic appreciation: People are first moved by external objects in the realm of natural aesthetic appreciation before consciously developing the urge to express their emotions or feelings through natural images in the realm of artistic aesthetics. The rise of evocation, originating from the rhapsodies on thoughts of the Wei and Jin dynasties, signifies that Chinese aesthetic consciousness was attained during this period in relation to the mechanism of generating aesthetic experiences.

Xin Qiji’s lyrics are known for their innovative images. This is attributed to his exceptional writing talent and creativity. Through careful observation, emotional sensitivity, and a richly imaginative mind, he crafts images. By skillfully intertwining natural and social images, he links them closely, using each to enhance the other. In his lyrics, he forges an alliance with the egret, creating numerous poetic pieces centered on this image. Together, the poet and the egret deliver a “drama” that is both poetic and filled with philosophical insights. To create new images with social and natural implications, Xin Qiji makes bold attempts, adopting an approach of writing lyrics in the same way as writing prose. He draws inspiration from various literary forms, transforming lyrics from a medium primarily focused on expressing emotions stirred by scenery—a common practice in the Northern Song Dynasty—into a tool for narrating stories while depicting scenery. This shift has provided important insights into lyric creation in the Southern Song Dynasty and beyond.

The composition of group poems based on evocation with miscellaneous themes (za-xing) first emerged in the Tang Dynasty, pioneered by Du Fu and Chu Guangxi, but an extraordinary outburst of group poems based on evocation with miscellaneous themes emerged in the the resurgence era of Southern Song Dynasty. This phenomenon was not only influenced by new ideas in poetics and the studies of Confucian classics in the Southern Song Dynasty but also directly stemmed from the resistance against the poetic system represented by the Jiangxi poetry school. The group poems based on evocation with miscellaneous themes of poets such as Lu You, Yang Wanli, and Fan Chengda exhibit a tendency opposite to the Jiangxi poetic style in terms of their overall characteristics. The rise of evocation with miscellaneous themes poems in the poetic circle of the the resurgence era of Southern Song Dynasty holds significant importance in the history of Song poetry. It represents a rebellious and rule-breaking force that fundamentally protests against the various rules and boundaries established by Song poetics, marking a revolution in the norms of Song poetry.