Magnetic confinement fusion: a brief review

Abstract

Fusion energy is considered to be the ultimate energy source, which does not contribute to climate change compared with conventional fossil fuel. It is massive compared with unconventional renewable energy and demonstrates fewer safety features compared with unconventional fission energy. During the past several decades, never-ceasing efforts have been made to peacefully utilize the fusion energy in various approaches, especially inertial confinement and magnetic confinement. In this paper, the main developments of magnetic confinement fusion with emphasis on confinement systems as well as challenges of materials related to superconducting magnet and plasma-facing components are reviewed. The scientific feasibility of magnetic confinement fusion has been demonstrated in JET, TFTR, JT-60, and EAST, which instigates the construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). A fusion roadmap to DEMO and commercial fusion power plant has been established and steady progresses have been made to achieve the ultimate energy source.

Key words： fusion energy; magnetic confinement; tokamak; structural material; superconducting magnet

Acknowledgments

This work was financially supported by the State Key Laboratory of Technologies in Space Cryogenic Propellants (Grant No. SKLTSCPQN201501), the National Magnetic Confinement Fusion Science Program (Grant No. 2015GB121001), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51427806, 51401224, and 51577185).

References

1 Piera M. Sustainability issues in the development of Nuclear Fission energy. Energy Conversion and Management, 2010, 51(5): 938–946

2 Horvath A, Rachlew E. Nuclear power in the 21st century: challenges and possibilities. Ambio, 2016, 45(Suppl 1): 38–49

PMID

3 Rogner H H. World energy demand and supply. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2012

4 Betti R, Hurricane O A. Inertial-confinement fusion with lasers. Nature Physics, 2016, 12(5): 435–448

5 Craxton R S, Anderson K S, Boehly T R, Goncharov V N, Harding D R, Knauer J P, McCrory R L, McKenty P W, Meyerhofer D D, Myatt J F, Schmitt A J, Sethian J D, Short R W, Skupsky S, Theobald W, Kruer W L, Tanaka K, Betti R, Collins T J B, Delettrez J A, Hu S X, Marozas J A, Maximov A V, Michel D T, Radha P B, Regan S P, Sangster T C, Seka W, Solodov A A, Soures J M, Stoeckl C, Zuegel J D. Direct-drive inertial confinement fusion: a review. Physics of Plasmas, 2015, 22(11): 139–477

6 Stacey W M. An Introduction to the Physics and Technology of Magnetic Confinement Fusion. Fusion, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2010

7 Burdakov A V, Ivanov A A, Kruglyakov E P. Modern magnetic mirrors and their fusion prospects. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 2010, 52(12): 124026

8 Fowler T K, Moir R W, Simonen T C. A new simpler way to obtain high fusion power gain in tandem mirrors. Nuclear Fusion, 2017, 57(5): 056014

9 Clery D. Twisted logic. Science, 2015, 350(6259): 369–371

PMID

10 Pedersen T S, Otte M, Lazerson S, Helander P, Bozhenkov S, Biedermann C, Klinger T, Wolf R C, Bosch H S, Wendelstein 7-X team. Confirmation of the topology of the Wendelstein 7-X magnetic field to better than 1:100000. Nature Communications, 2016, 7: 13493

PMID

11 Bosch H S, Brakel R, Braeuer T, Bykov V, Eeten P, Feist J H, Fullenbach F, Gasparotto M, Grote H, Klinger T, Laqua H, Nagel M, Naujoks D, Otte M, Risse K, Rummel T, Schacht J, Spring A, Pedersen T S, Vilbrandt R, Wegener L, Werner A, Wolf R C, Baldzuhn J, Biedermann C, Braune H, Buihenn R, Hirsch M, Hofel U, Kanuer J, Kornejew P, Marsen S, Stange T, Mora H T, and W7-X team. Final integration, commissioning and start of the Wendelstein 7-X stellarator operation. Nuclear Fusion, 2017, 57(11): 116015

12 Brotankova J, Cadwallader L C, Costley A E. Magnetic Fusion Technology Lecture Notes in Energy. New York: Springer, 2013

13 Ongena J, Koch R, Wolf R, Zohm H. Magnetic-confinement fusion. Nature Physics, 2016, 12(5): 398–410

14 Butler D. ITER keeps eye on prize. Nature, 2013, 502(7471): 282–283

PMID

15 Clery D. The new shape of fusion. Science, 2015, 348(6237): 854

PMID

16 Chapman B E, Almagri A F, Anderson J K, Brower D L, Caspary K J, Clayton D J, Craig D, Hartog D J D, Ding W X, Ennis D A, Fiksel G, Gangadhara S, Kumar S, Magee R M, O’Connell R, Parke E, Prager S C, Reusch J A, Sarff J S, Stephens H D, Yang Y M. Generation and confinement of hot ions and electrons in a reversed-field pinch plasma. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 2010, 52(12): 124048

17 Yamada H, Kasada R, Ozaki A, Sakamoto R, Sakamoto Y, Taken-aga H, Tanaka T, Tanigawa H, Okano K, Tobita K, Kaneko O, Ushigusa K. Japanese endeavors to establish technological bases for DEMO. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2016, 109–111, part B: 1318–1325

18 Brown T, Titus P, Brooks A, Zhang H, Neilson H, Im K, Kim K. Results of availability imposed configuration details developed for K-DEMO. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2016, 109–111, part B: 1091–1095

19 Federici G, Kemp R, Ward D, Bachmann C, Franke T, Gonzalez S, Lowry C, Gadomska M, Harman J, Meszaros B, Morlock C, Romanelli F, Wenninger R. Overview of EU DEMO design and R&D activities. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2014, 89(7–8): 882–889

20 Zheng J, Liu X, Song Y, Wan Y, Li J, Wu S, Wan B, Ye M, Wei J, Xu W, Liu S, Weng P, Lu K, Luo Z. Concept design of CFETR superconducting magnet system based on different maintenance ports. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2013, 88(11): 2960–2966

21 Buckingham R, Loving A. Remote-handling challenges in fusion research and beyond. Nature Physics, 2016, 12(5): 391–393

22 Bruzzone P. Superconductivity and fusion energy-the inseparable companions. Superconductor Science and Technology, 2015, 28(2): 708–718

23 Pan X F, Feng Y, Yan G, Cui L J, Chen C, Zhang Y, Wu Z X, Liu X H, Zhang P X, Bai Z M, Zhao Y, Li L F. Manufacture, electromagnetic properties and microstructure of an 18-filament jelly-roll Nb3Al superconducting wire with rapid heating and quenching heat-treatment. Superconductor Science and Technology, 2016, 29(1): 015008

24 Fietz W H, Barth C, Drotziger S, Goldacker W, Heller R, Schlachter S I, Weiss K P. Prospects of high temperature superconductors for fusion magnets and power applications. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2013, 88(6–8): 440–445

25 Uglietti D, Bykovsky N, Wesche R, Bruzzone P. Development of HTS conductors for fusion magnets. IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, 2015, 25(3): 1–6

26 Qin J G, Wu Y, Li J G, Dai C, Liu F. Manufacture and test of Bi-2212 cable-in-conduit conductor. IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, 2017, 27(4): 1–5

27 Zhou T, Lu K, Ran Q, Ding K, Feng H, Wu H, Liu C, Song Y, Niu E, Bauer P, Devred A. Mock-up qualification and prototype manufacture for ITER current leads. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2015, 96–97: 388–391

28 Nishimura A. Need for development of higher strength cryogenic structural materials for fusion magnet. Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, 2014, 60: 333–339

29 Shen T, Li P, Jiang J, Cooley L, Tompkins J, McRae D, Walsh R. High strength kiloampere Bi₂Sr₂CaCu₂O_x cables for high-field magnet applications. Superconductor Science and Technology, 2015, 28(6): 065002

30 Zinkle S J, Möslang A. Evaluation of irradiation facility options for fusion materials research and development. Fusion Engineering and Design, 2013, 88(6–8): 472–482

31 Zinkle S J, Busby J T. Structural materials for fission & fusion energy. Materials Today, 2009, 12(11): 12–19

32 Zinkle S J, Snead L L. Designing radiation resistance in materials for fusion energy. Annual Review of Materials Research, 2014, 44(1): 241–267

33 Snead L L, Nozawa T, Ferraris M, Katoh Y, Shinavski R, Sawan M. Silicon carbide composites as fusion power reactor structural materials. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2011, 417(1–3): 330–339

34 Huang Q. Status and improvement of CLAM for nuclear application. Nuclear Fusion, 2017, 57: 086042

35 Kurtz R J, Alamo A, Lucon E, Huang Q, Jitsukawa S, Kimura A, Klueh R L, Odette G R, Petersen C, Sokolov M A, Spätig P, Rensman J W. Recent progress toward development of reduced activation ferritic/martensitic steels for fusion structural applications. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2009, 386(5): 411–417

36 Kondo T. IFMIF, its facility concept and technology. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 1998, 258(4): 47–55

37 Knaster J, Chel S, Fischer U, Groeschel F, Heidinger R, Ibarra A, Micciche G, Möslang A, Sugimoto M, Wakai E. IFMIF, a fusion relevant neutron source for material irradiation current status. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2014, 453(1–3): 115–119