Vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts for n-butane selective oxidation toward maleic anhydride: design, modification strategies, and progress

Abstract

Selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride (MA) is considered an effective approach to realize the utilization of lighter alkanes into useful chemical products. Currently, vanadium phosphorus oxide (VPO) is the most widely used catalyst for the selective oxidation of n-butane to MA owing to its abundant active sites and oxygen species. However, the development of efficient VPO catalysts remains urgent, as the MA yield is limited by the inherent “trade-off” effect between n-butane conversion and MA selectivity. This review systematically summarizes the progress in the rational design and precise regulation of VPO catalysts, with a particular focus on the influence of physicochemical properties on catalytic performance. More importantly, advanced synthesis routes and modification strategies are discussed in detail. These strategies for modulating the geometric and electronic structures of VPO catalysts are highlighted, accompanied by a discussion of the structure-activity relationship. Finally, the challenges of VPO catalysts are discussed, and future research directions are proposed.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

n-butane selective oxidation / vanadium phosphorus oxide / maleic anhydride / structure-activity relationship / catalytic performance

References

[1] Abon M , Volta J C . Vanadium phosphorus oxides for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997, 157(1–2): 173–193

[2] Hashim B , Khan W U , Hantoko D , Nasser G A , Sanhoob M A , Bakare A I , Govender N S , Ali S A , Hossain M M . n-Butane oxidation to maleic anhydride: reaction mechanism and kinetics over VPO catalyst. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2024, 63(14): 5987–6002

[3] Faizan M , Zhang R , Liu R . Vanadium phosphorus oxide catalyst: progress, development, and applications. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2022, 110: 27–67

[4] Müller M , Kutscherauer M , Böcklein S , Wehinger G D , Turek T , Mestl G . Modeling the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride: from active site to industrial reactor. Catalysis Today, 2022, 387: 82–106

[5] Faizan M , Zhang R , Liu R . Dual nature cupper-based ionic liquid-assisted n-butane selective oxidation with a vanadium phosphorus oxide catalyst. Catalysis Letters, 2023, 153(1): 271–284

[6] Centi G , Trifiro F , Ebner J R , Franchetti V M . Mechanistic aspects of maleic anhydride synthesis from C₄ hydrocarbons over phosphorus vanadium oxide. Chemical Reviews, 1988, 88(1): 55–80

[7] Hutchings G J . Heterogeneous catalysts—discovery and design. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2009, 19(9): 1222–1235

[8] Dai F , Li Z , Chen X , He B , Liu R , Zhang S . Synthesis of vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts promoted by iron-based ionic liquids and their catalytic performance in selective oxidation of n-butane. Catalysis Science & Technology, 2018, 8(17): 4515–4525

[9] Bartley J K , Lopez-Sanchez J A , Hutchings G J . Preparation of vanadium phosphate catalysts using water as solvent. Catalysis Today, 2003, 81(2): 197–203

[10] Busca G , Centi G . Surface dynamics of adsorbed species on heterogeneous oxidation catalysts: evidence from the oxidation of C₄ and C₅ alkanes on vanadyl pyrophosphate. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1989, 111(1): 46–54

[11] Zhanglin Y , Forissier M , Sneeden R P , Vedrine J C , Volta J C . On the mechanism of n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride on VPO catalysts. Journal of Catalysis, 1994, 145(2): 256–266

[12] Zhanglin Y , Forissier M , Vedrine J C , Volta J C . On the mechanism of n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride on VPO catalysts II: study of the evolution of the VPO catalysts under n-butane, butadiene, and furan oxidation conditions. Journal of Catalysis, 1994, 145(2): 267–275

[13] Ziółotkowski J . Oxidation of butane and butene on the (100) face of (VO)₂P₂O₇: a dynamic view in terms of the crystallochemical model of active sites. Journal of Catalysis, 1990, 122(1): 126–150

[14] Ziółotkowski J , Bordes E , Courtine P . Dynamic description of the oxidation of n-butane on various faces of (VO)₂P₂O₇ in terms of the crystallochemical model of active sites. Journal of Molecular Catalysis, 1993, 84(3): 307–326

[15] Centi G . On the mechanism of n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride: oxidation in oxygen-stoichiometry-controlled conditions. Journal of Catalysis, 1984, 89(1): 44–51

[16] Dummer N F , Bartley J K , Hutchings G J . Vanadium phosphate materials as selective oxidation catalysts. Advances in Catalysis, 2011, 54: 189–247

[17] Pierini B T , Lombardo E A . Structure and properties of Cr promoted VPO catalysts. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2005, 92(1): 197–204

[18] Hutchings G J . Effect of promoters and reactant concentration on the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride using vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts. Applied Catalysis, 1991, 72(1): 1–32

[19] Hutchings G J , Higgins R . Effect of promoters on the selective oxidation of n-butane with vanadium-phosphorus oxide catalysts. Journal of Catalysis, 1996, 162(2): 153–168

[20] Sharma R K , Cresswell D L , Newson E J . Kinetics and fixed-bed reactor modeling of butane oxidation to maleic anhydride. AIChE Journal, 1991, 37(1): 39–47

[21] Mestl G , Lesser D , Turek T . Optimum performance of vanadyl pyrophosphate catalysts. Topics in Catalysis, 2016, 59(17–18): 1533–1544

[22] Trifirò F , Grasselli R K . How the yield of maleic anhydride in n-butane oxidation, using VPO catalysts, was improved over the years. Topics in Catalysis, 2014, 57(14–16): 1188–1195

[23] Schulz C , Kraehnert R , Rosowski F , Frank B . Selective oxidation of n-butane over vanadium-phosphorus oxide: oxygen activation and dynamics. ChemCatChem, 2018, 10(23): 5523–5532

[24] Ballarini N , Cavani F , Cortelli C , Ligi S , Pierelli F , Trifirò F , Fumagalli C , Mazzoni G , Monti T . VPO catalyst for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride: a goal achieved, or a still open challenge. Topics in Catalysis, 2006, 38(1–3): 147–156

[25] Hodnett B K . Comparison of models for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride over vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts. Catalysis Today, 1993, 16(1): 131–138

[26] Zhang Y , Zhang R , Dong J , Wu Y , Luo C , Zhang H , Zhu S , Liu R . The critical role of steam during activation process on the catalytic performance of VPO for n-butane selective oxidation to maleic anhydride. Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 416: 157–169

[27] Jiang B , Yuan S , Tong M , Wang H , Yu Y , Huang Z , Yang Y , Wang J , Yang Y . Influence of the structural characteristics of VPO catalysts on the temperature sensitivity of the oxidation reaction of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2022, 61(37): 13816–13826

[28] Zhang X , Wang H , Gou L , Li L , Duan A , Cao Z . Synthesis of an efficient VPO catalyst for the selective oxidation of n-butane to the MA product: mechanism of crystal transformation. Chemical Engineering Science, 2023, 274: 118708

[29] Li W , Xiao Y , Guo S , Jia L , Guo H , Li D . Increasing maleic anhydride selectivity for n-butane oxidation by Y-modified VPO catalysts. Fuel, 2023, 333: 126214

[30] Li W , Guo S , Guo H , Xiao Y , Jia L , Li D . Effect of III B metals (Sc, Y, La, and Ce) on active components regulation of VPO catalyst in n-butane selective oxidation. Molecular Catalysis, 2023, 547: 113318

[31] Faizan M , Li Y , Wang X , Song P , Zhang R , Liu R . Rare earth metal based DES assisted the VPO synthesis for n-butane selective oxidation toward maleic anhydride. Green Energy& Environment, 2023, 8(6): 1737–1752

[32] Chang J , Gorte R J , Vohs J M . Supported VPO catalysts for maleic anhydride by atomic layer deposition. Catalysis Letters, 2024, 154(3): 1072–1080

[33] Faizan M , Li Y , Zhang R , Wang X , Song P , Liu R . Progress of vanadium phosphorous oxide catalyst for n-butane selective oxidation. Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2022, 43: 297–315

[34] Wang B-J, Dai F, Jiang L, Zhang R, Chu G-W, Liu R, Luo Y. A vanadium phosphorus oxide catalyst synthesized in rotating packed bed for high-efficiency selective oxidation of n-butane. AIChE Journal, 2003, 69(1): e17495

[35] Abon M , Bere K E , Tuel A , Delichere P . Evolution of a VPO catalyst in n-butane oxidation reaction during the activation time. Journal of Catalysis, 1995, 156(1): 28–36

[36] Cavani F , De Santi D , Luciani S , Löfberg A , Bordes-Richard E , Cortelli C , Leanza R . Transient reactivity of vanadyl pyrophosphate, the catalyst for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride, in response to in-situ treatments. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2010, 376(1–2): 66–75

[37] Bordes E . Crystallochemistry of V–P–O phases and application to catalysis. Catalysis Today, 1987, 1(5): 499–526

[38] Shcherban N D , Diyuk E A , Sydorchuk V V . Synthesis and catalytic activity of vanadium phosphorous oxides systems supported on silicon carbide for the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Reaction Kinetics, Mechanisms, and Catalysis, 2019, 126(2): 975–985

[39] Caldarelli A , Cavani F , Folco F , Luciani S , Cortelli C , Leanza R . The design of a new ZrO₂-supported V/P/O catalyst for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride: the build-up of the active phase during thermal treatment. Catalysis Today, 2010, 157(1–4): 204–210

[40] Hutchings G J , Desmartin-Chomel A , Olier R , Volta J C . Role of the product in the transformation of a catalyst to its active state. Nature, 1994, 368(6466): 41–45

[41] Ben Abdelouahab F . A study by in situ laser Raman spectroscopy of VPO catalysts for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride I: preparation and characterization of pure reference phases. Journal of Catalysis, 1992, 134(1): 151–167

[42] Lesser D , Mestl G , Turek T . Transient behavior of vanadyl pyrophosphate catalysts during the partial oxidation of n-butane in industrial-sized, fixed bed reactors. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2016, 510: 1–10

[43] Wachs I E , Weckhuysen B M . Structure and reactivity of surface vanadium oxide species on oxide supports. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997, 157(1–2): 67–90

[44] Caldarelli A , Bañares M A , Cortelli C , Luciani S , Cavani F . An investigation on surface reactivity of Nb-doped vanadyl pyrophosphate catalysts by reactivity experiments and in situ Raman spectroscopy. Catalysis Science & Technology, 2014, 4(2): 419–427

[45] Cavani F , Luciani S , Esposti E D , Cortelli C , Leanza R . Surface dynamics of a vanadyl pyrophosphate catalyst for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride: an in situ Raman and reactivity study of the effect of the P/V atomic ratio. Chemistry, 2010, 16(5): 1646–1655

[46] Frey J , Lieder C , Schölkopf T , Schleid T , Nieken U , Klemm E , Hunger M . Quantitative solid-state NMR investigation of V⁵⁺ species in VPO catalysts upon sequential selective oxidation of n-butane. Journal of Catalysis, 2010, 272(1): 131–139

[47] Leong L K , Chin K S , Taufiq-Yap Y H . The effect of Bi promoter on vanadium phosphate catalysts synthesized via sesquihydrate route. Catalysis Today, 2011, 164(1): 341–346

[48] Goo K , Yap Y , Lin K , Leong L . Effect of direct ultrasound synthesis via a sesquihydrate route on bismuth-promoted vanadyl pyrophosphate catalysts. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, 2020, 67(1): 94–102

[49] Zhang X , Wang H , Gou L , Li L , Duan A , Cao Z . Reaction behaviors and crystal transformation of industrial vanadium-phosphorus-oxygen (VPO) catalysts for n-butane oxidation. ACS Omega, 2021, 6(36): 23558–23563

[50] Schulz C , Roy S C , Wittich K , d’Alnoncourt R N , Linke S , Strempel V E , Frank B , Glaum R , Rosowski F . α_II-(V_1–xW_x)OPO₄ catalysts for the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Today, 2019, 333: 113–119

[51] Moser T . Stability of model V–P–O catalysts for maleic anhydride synthesis. Journal of Catalysis, 1987, 104(1): 99–108

[52] Rouvet F , Herrmann J M , Volta J C . Electrical properties of pure vanadium phosphate phases and of VPO catalysts used in the partial oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Journal of the Chemical Society: Faraday Transactions, 1994, 90(10): 1441

[53] Horowitz H S , Blackstone C M , Sleight A W , Teufer G . VPO catalysts for oxidation of butane to maleic anhydride. Applied Catalysis, 1988, 38(2): 193–210

[54] Inumaru K , Misono M , Okuhara T . Structure and catalysis of vanadium oxide overlayers on oxide supports. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997, 149(1): 133–149

[55] Yamamoto N , Hiyoshi N , Okuhara T . Thin-layered sheets of VOHPO₄·0.5H₂O prepared from VOPO₄·2H₂O by intercalation-exfoliation-reduction in alcohol. Chemistry of Materials, 2002, 14(9): 3882–3888

[56] Kamiya Y , Ueki S , Hiyoshi N , Yamamoto N , Okuhara T . Preparation of catalyst precursors for selective oxidation of n-butane by exfoliation-reduction of VOPO₄·2H₂O in primary alcohol. Catalysis Today, 2003, 78(1–4): 281–290

[57] Nguyen Dinh M T , Nguyen T L , Phan M D , Nguyen Dinh L , Truong Q D , Bordes-Richard E . Control of the crystal morphology of VOHPO₄·0.5H₂O precursors prepared via light alcohols-assisted solvothermal synthesis and influence on the selective oxidation of n-butane. Journal of Catalysis, 2019, 377: 638–651

[58] Gai P L , Kourtakis K . Solid-state defect mechanism in vanadyl pyrophosphate catalysts: implications for selective oxidation. Science. Science, 1995, 267(5198): 661–663

[59] Nguyen P T , Sleight A W , Roberts N , Warren W W . Modeling of extended defects in the vanadium phosphate catalyst for butane oxidation, (VO)₂P₂O₇. Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 1996, 122(2): 259–265

[60] Guliants V V , Benziger J B , Sundaresan S , Yao N , Wachs I E . Evolution of the active surface of the vanadyl pyrophosphate catalysts. Catalysis Letters, 1995, 32(3–4): 379–386

[61] Hutchings G J , Bartley J K , Webster J M , Lopez-Sanchez J A , Gilbert D J , Kiely C J , Carley A F , Howdle S M , Sajip S , Caldarelli S . . Amorphous vanadium phosphate catalysts from supercritical antisolvent precipitation. Journal of Catalysis, 2001, 197(2): 232–235

[62] Kleimenov E , Bluhm H , Hävecker M , Knop-Gericke A , Pestryakov A , Teschner D , Lopez-Sanchez J A , Bartley J K , Hutchings G J , Schlögl R . XPS investigations of VPO catalysts under reaction conditions. Surface Science, 2005, 575(1–2): 181–188

[63] Böcklein S , Mestl G , Auras S V , Wintterlin J . On the correlation of structure and catalytic performance of VPO catalysts. Topics in Catalysis, 2017, 60(19–20): 1682–1697

[64] Guliants V V , Benziger J B , Sundaresan S , Wachs I E , Jehng J M , Roberts J E . The effect of the phase composition of model VPO catalysts for partial oxidation of n-butane. Catalysis Today, 1996, 28(4): 275–295

[65] Guliants V V , Holmes S A . Probing polyfunctional nature of vanadyl pyrophosphate catalysts: oxidation of 16 C₄ molecules. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A Chemical, 2001, 175(1–2): 227–239

[66] Hutchings G J , Lopez-Sanchez J A , Bartley J K , Webster J M , Burrows A , Kiely C J , Carley A F , Rhodes C , Hävecker M , Knop-Gericke A . . Amorphous vanadium phosphate catalysts prepared using precipitation with supercritical CO₂ as an antisolvent. Journal of Catalysis, 2002, 208(1): 197–210

[67] Lopez-Sanchez J A , Bartley J K , Burrows A , Kiely C J , Hävecker M , Schlögl R , Volta J C , Poliakoff M , Hutchings G J . Effects of cobalt additive on amorphous vanadium phosphate catalysts prepared using precipitation with supercritical CO₂ as an antisolvent. New Journal of Chemistry, 2002, 26(12): 1811–1816

[68] Xie Z , Zhu S , Wang X , Wei S , Zhang R , Liu R . Microwave synthesis of vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts for n-butane selective oxidation. Particuology, 2025, 96: 97–105

[69] Zhao J , Zhang J , Yang F , Yu T , Li Q , Chen J , Wang G , Wang R . Regulation of maleic anhydride selectivity for n-butane oxidation by Sb₂O₃-modified vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2024, 63(26): 11392–11403

[70] Xu J , Li N , Li X , Ji R , Yan X , Huang R , Li C . Role of regulating synthetic solvents in enhancing the catalytic performance of VPO catalysts for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2024, 496: 153635

[71] Song P , Li M , Zhu S , Su Y , He B , Zheng C , Yan R , Liu R . Role of cerium-layered double hydroxide-derived oxide dopants in vanadium phosphorus oxide for selective oxidation of n-butane. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2024, 63(44): 19329–19338

[72] Cheng M J , Goddard W A III . The critical role of phosphate in vanadium phosphate oxide for the catalytic activation and functionalization of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2013, 135(12): 4600–4603

[73] Mars P , Van Krevelen D W . Oxidations carried out by means of vanadium oxide catalysts. Chemical Engineering Science, 1954, 3: 41–59

[74] Taufiq-Yap Y H , Yuen C S , Suziana N , Irmawati R . Effects of Bi and Ni on the properties of a vanadium phosphorus oxide catalyst. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2014, 35(2): 270–276

[75] Bordes E . Nature of the active and selective sites in vanadyl pyrophosphate, catalyst of oxidation of n-butane, butene, and pentane to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Today, 1993, 16(1): 27–38

[76] Taufiq-Yap Y H , Goh C K , Hutchings G J , Dummer N , Bartley J . Dependence of n-butane activation on active site of vanadium phosphate catalysts. Catalysis Letters, 2009, 130(3–4): 327–334

[77] Gleaves J T , Ebner J R , Kuechler T C . Temporal analysis of products (TAP)—a unique catalyst evaluation system with submillisecond time resolution. Catalysis Reviews: Science and Engineering, 1988, 30(1): 49–116

[78] Taufiq-Yap Y H , Sakakini B H , Waugh K C . Investigation of the nature of the oxidant (selective and unselective) in/on a vanadyl pyrophosphate catalyst. Catalysis Letters, 1997, 48(1/2): 105–110

[79] Che M , Tench A J . Characterization and reactivity of mononuclear oxygen species on oxide surfaces. Advances in Catalysis, 1982, 31: 77–133

[80] Che M , Tench A J . Characterization and reactivity of molecular oxygen species on oxide surfaces. Advances in Catalysis, 1983, 32: 1–148

[81] BielanskiAHaberJ. Oxygen in Catalysis. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1990, 1–488

[82] Zazhigalov V A , Haber J , Stoch J , Bacherikova I V , Komashko G A , Pyatniskaya A I . n-Butane oxidation on V-P-O catalysts. Influence of alkali and alkaline-earth metal ions as additions. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1996, 134(2): 225–237

[83] Agaskar P A , De Caul L , Grasselli R K . A molecular level mechanism of n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride over vanadyl pyrophosphate. Catalysis Letters, 1994, 23(3–4): 339–351

[84] Zhang X , Wang H , Gou L , Li L , Duan A , Cao Z . Effect of crystalline phases for VPO catalysts on the oxidation of butane: thermodynamics and kinetics. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2021, 60(42): 15056–15063

[85] Schiøtt B , Jørgensen K A . The oxidative species on a vanadyl pyrophosphate surface. Catalysis Today, 1993, 16(1): 79–90

[86] Aït-Lachgar K , Abon M , Volta J C . Selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride on vanadyl pyrophosphate. Journal of Catalysis, 1997, 171(2): 383–390

[87] Aitlachgar K , Tuel A , Brun M , Herrmann J M , Krafft J M , Martin J R , Volta J C , Abon M . Selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride on vanadyl pyrophosphate II: characterization of the oxygen-treated catalyst by electrical conductivity, Raman, XPS, and NMR spectroscopic techniques. Journal of Catalysis, 1998, 177(2): 224–230

[88] Gai P L , Kourtakis K , Coulson D R , Sonnichsen G C . HREM microstructural studies on the effect of steam exposure and cation promoters on vanadium phosphorus oxides: new correlations with n-butane oxidation reaction chemistry. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 1997, 101(48): 9916–9925

[89] ErtlGKnözingerHSchüthFWeitkampJ. Handbook of Heterogeneous Catalysis. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Press, 1997, 1–907

[90] Ye D , Fu M , Tian L , Liang H , Rong T , Cheng S , Pang X . Effect of promoters on the behavior and properties of VPO catalysts for the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Research on Chemical Intermediates, 2003, 29(3): 271–284

[91] Brown I D , Wu K K . Empirical parameters for calculating cation-oxygen bond valences. Acta Crystallographica Section B: Structural Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry, 1976, 32(7): 1957–1959

[92] Cornaglia L , Irusta S , Lombardo E A , Durupty M C , Volta J C . The beneficial effect of cobalt on VPO catalysts. Catalysis Today, 2003, 78(1–4): 291–301

[93] Hutchings G J , Kiely C J , Sananes-Schulz M T , Burrows A , Volta J C . Comments on the nature of the active site of vanadium phosphate catalysts for butane oxidation. Catalysis Today, 1998, 40(2–3): 273–286

[94] Bordes E . Some selectivity criteria in mild oxidation catalysis V–P–O phases in butene oxidation to maleic anhydride. Journal of Catalysis, 1979, 57(2): 236–252

[95] Hodnett B K . Influence of the phosphorus/vanadium ratio on the solid state chemistry and redox properties of vanadium phosphate-based catalysts. Journal of Catalysis, 1984, 88(1): 43–53

[96] Hodnett B K . Vanadium-phosphorus oxide catalysts for the selective oxidation of C₄ hydrocarbons to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Reviews: Science and Engineering, 1985, 27(3): 373–424

[97] Garbassi F . Catalytic n-butane oxidation activity and physicochemical characterization of vanadium-phosphorus oxides with variable P/V ratio. Journal of Catalysis, 1986, 98(2): 317–325

[98] Hodnett B K , Permanne Ph , Delmon B . Influence of P/V ratio on the phase composition and catalytic activity of vanadium phosphate based catalysts. Applied Catalysis, 1983, 6(2): 231–244

[99] Nakamura M . The structure and the activity of vanadyl phosphate catalysts. Journal of Catalysis, 1974, 34(3): 345–355

[100] Stoch J , Gablankowska-Kukucz J . The effect of carbonate contaminations on the XPS O 1s band structure in metal oxides. Surface and Interface Analysis, 1991, 17(3): 165–167

[101] Rajan N P , Rao G S , Putrakumar B , Chary K V R . Vapour phase dehydration of glycerol to acrolein over vanadium phosphorous oxide (VPO) catalyst. RSC Advances, 2014, 4(96): 53419–53428

[102] Coulston G W , Thompson E A , Herron N . Characterization of VPO catalysts by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Journal of Catalysis, 1996, 163(1): 122–129

[103] Ruiz P , Bastians Ph , Caussin L , Reuse R , Daza L , Acosta D , Delmon B . New aspects of the cooperation between phases in vanadium phosphate catalysts. Catalysis Today, 1993, 16(1): 99–111

[104] Zeyß S , Wendt G , Hallmeier K H , Szargan R , Lippold G . Influence of zirconium phosphate on the properties of (VO)₂P₂O₇ catalysts for the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Journal of the Chemical Society: Faraday Transactions, 1996, 92(17): 3273–3279

[105] Busca G , Centi G , Trifiro F , Lorenzelli V . Surface acidity of vanadyl pyrophosphate, active phase in n-butane selective oxidation. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 1986, 90(7): 1337–1344

[106] Centi G , Golinelli G , Busca G . Modification of the surface pathways in alkane oxidation by selective doping of Bronsted acid sites of vanadyl pyrophosphate. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 1990, 94(17): 6813–6819

[107] Zhang H , Dong J , Li Y , Chen F , Zhang R , Xiang X , Liu R , He J , Zhang S . Synthesis of tunable-acidity vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts modified by layered double oxide for the selective oxidation of n-butane. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2022, 61(11): 3850–3859

[108] Li K , He B , Liu J , Zhang H , Zhang R , Liu R , Song Y F , Zhang S . Synergistic interaction of anions and cations in preparation of VPO catalysts promoted by polyoxometalate-ionic liquids. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2019, 582: 117106

[109] Ye D , Satsuma A , Hattori A , Hattori T , Murakami T . Effect of additives on the active sites of (VO)₂P₂O₇ catalysts. Catalysis Today, 1993, 16(1): 113–121

[110] Volta J C . Site isolation for light hydrocarbons oxidation. Topics in Catalysis, 2001, 15(2/4): 121–129

[111] Hattori H , Takahashi O , Takagi M , Tanabe K . Solid super acids: preparation and their catalytic activities for reaction of alkanes. Journal of Catalysis, 1981, 68(1): 132–143

[112] Hutchings G J . Vanadium phosphate: a new look at the active components of catalysts for the oxidation of butane to maleic anhydride. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2004, 14(23): 3385

[113] Guan J , Wang Z , Xu C , Yang Y , Liu B , Yu X , Kan Q . Partial oxidation of isobutane over vanadium phosphorus oxides. Catalysis Letters, 2009, 128(3–4): 356–362

[114] Guerrero-Pérez M O , Berenguer R , Ford M E , Wachs I E . Carbon-supported VPO catalysts with fibrous structure: a new family of catalysts for partial oxidation reactions. Catalysis Today, 2023, 423: 114291

[115] Kiely C J , Burrows A , Sajip S , Hutchings G J , Sananes M T , Tuel A , Volta J C . Characterisation of variations in vanadium phosphate catalyst microstructure with preparation route. Journal of Catalysis, 1996, 162(1): 31–47

[116] Johnson J W , Johnston D C , Jacobson A J , Brody J F . Preparation and characterization of vanadyl hydrogen phosphate hemihydrate and its topotactic transformation to vanadyl pyrophosphate. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1984, 106(26): 8123–8128

[117] Zhang X , Zhao Z . An efficient vanadium phosphorus oxide catalyst prepared by tuning vanadium precursor for selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Materials Letters, 2024, 357: 135679

[118] Gómez-Cápiro O , Bravo L , Lagos P , Santander P , Pecchi G , Karelovic A . Kinetic and structural understanding of bulk and supported vanadium-based catalysts for furfural oxidation to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Science & Technology, 2021, 11(19): 6477–6489

[119] Faizan M , Saeed A , Song P , Zhang R , Liu R , Chang Z , Wu L , Zhang M . Fabrication of Cd_xZn_1–xS@VPO (x = 0.2) nanocomposites for n-butane selective oxidation toward maleic anhydride. Catalysis Letters, 2023, 153(10): 3074–3091

[120] Berenguer R , Fornells J , García-Mateos F J , Guerrero-Pérez M O , Rodríguez-Mirasol J , Cordero T . Novel synthesis method of porous VPO catalysts with fibrous structure by electrospinning. Catalysis Today, 2016, 277: 266–273

[121] Strempel V E , Löffler D , Kröhnert J , Skorupska K , Johnson B , d’Alnoncourt R N , Driess M , Rosowski F . Enhancing of catalytic properties of vanadia via surface doping with phosphorus using atomic layer deposition. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films, 2016, 34(1): 01A135

[122] Knemeyer K , Epping J D , Rüther F , Schulz C , Frank B , Müller P , d’Alnoncourt R N , Driess M , Rosowski F . Unraveling property-performance relationships by surface tailoring of oxidation catalysts via ALD. ChemCatChem, 2021, 13(19): 4201–4209

[123] Abid N , Khan A M , Shujait S , Chaudhary K , Ikram M , Imran M , Haider J , Khan M , Khan Q , Maqbool M . Synthesis of nanomaterials using various top-down and bottom-up approaches, influencing factors, advantages, and disadvantages: a review. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2022, 300: 102597

[124] Farrusseng D , Julbe A , Lopez M , Guizard C . Investigation of sol-gel methods for the synthesis of VPO membrane materials adapted to the partial oxidation of n-butane. Catalysis Today, 2000, 56(1-3): 211–220

[125] Salazar J , Hohn K . Partial oxidation of n-butane over a sol-gel prepared vanadium phosphorous oxide. Catalysts, 2013, 3(1): 11–26

[126] Kamiya Y , Hiyoshi N , Ryumon N , Okuhara T . Microstructures of V–P–O catalysts derived from VOHPO₄·0.5H₂O of different crystallite sizes. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, 2004, 220(1): 103–112

[127] Kamiya Y , Ryumon N , Imai H , Okuhara T . Nano-sized crystallites of vanadyl pyrophosphate as a highly selective catalyst for n-butane oxidation. Catalysis Letters, 2006, 111(3–4): 159–163

[128] Beneš L , Melánová K , Svoboda J , Zima V . Intercalation chemistry of layered vanadyl phosphate: a review. Journal of Inclusion Phenomena and Macrocyclic Chemistry, 2012, 73(1–4): 33–53

[129] Hiyoshi N , Yamamoto N , Terao N , Nakato T , Okuhara T . Selective oxidation of n-butane over novel V–P–O/silica-composites prepared through intercalation and exfoliation of layered precursor. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, 2000, 130: 1715–1720

[130] Kalousová J , Votinský J , Beneš L , Melánová K , Zima V . Vanadyl phosphate and its intercalation: a review. Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical Contributions, 1998, 63(1): 1–19

[131] Kamiya Y , Kijima Y , Ohkura T , Satsuma A , Hattori T . Selective oxidation of n-butane over iron-doped vanadyl pyrophosphate prepared from lamellar vanadyl n-hexylphosphate. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2003, 253(1): 1–13

[132] Hutchings G J , Higgins R . Selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride with vanadium phosphorus catalysts prepared by comminution in the presence of dispersants. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997, 154(1–2): 103–115

[133] Wang X , Xu L , Chen X , Ji W , Yan Q , Chen Y . Novel modifications in preparing vanadium phosphorus oxides and their applications for partial oxidation of n-butane. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, 2003, 206(1-2): 261–268

[134] Okuhara T , Inumaru K , Misono M . Active crystal-face of vanadyl pyrophosphate for selective oxidation of n-butane. ACS Symposium Series, 1993, 523: 156–167

[135] Dai F , Shi Y , Zhang T , Faizan M , Li Z , Zhang R , Liu R , Zhang S . Phosphorus-based ionic liquid as dual function promoter oriented synthesis of efficient VPO catalyst for selective oxidation of n-butane. Catalysis Letters, 2021, 151(1): 255–266

[136] Carreon M A , Guliants V V . Hierarchical design of mixed metal oxides: novel macroporous VPO phases. Chemical Communications, 2001, (16): 1438–1439

[137] Carreon M A , Guliants V V . Macroporous vanadium phosphorus oxide phases displaying three-dimensional arrays of spherical voids. Chemistry of Materials, 2002, 14(6): 2670–2675

[138] Lin Z , Weng W , Kiely C J , Dummer N F , Bartley J K , Hutchings G J . The synthesis of highly crystalline vanadium phosphate catalysts using a diblock copolymer as a structure directing agent. Catalysis Today, 2010, 157(1–4): 211–216

[139] Schipper W J , Klapwijk A , Potjer B , Rulkens W H , Temmink B G , Kiestra F D G , Limbach A C M . Phosphate recycling in the phosphorus industry. Phosphorus Research Bulletin, 2004, 15(0): 47–51

[140] Dong W S , Bartley J K , Dummer N F , Girgsdies F , Su D , Schlögl R , Volta J C , Hutchings G J . Reaction of vanadium phosphates with alcohols at elevated temperature and pressure. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2005, 15(31): 3214

[141] Taufiq-Yap Y H , Hasbi A R , Hussein M Z , Hutchings G J , Bartley J , Dummer N . Synthesis of vanadium phosphate catalysts by hydrothermal method for selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Letters, 2006, 106(3–4): 177–181

[142] Griesel L , Bartley J K , Wells R P K , Hutchings G J . Preparation of vanadium phosphate catalyst precursors using a high pressure method. Catalysis Today, 2005, 99(1–2): 131–136

[143] Rownaghi A A , Taufiq-Yap Y H . Novel synthesis techniques for preparation of ultrahigh-crystalline vanadyl pyrophosphate as a highly selective catalyst for n-butane oxidation. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2010, 49(5): 2135–2143

[144] Zazhigalov V A , Diyuk E A . Barothermal synthesis and catalytic properties of vanadium-phosphorus oxide systems in oxidative transformations of butane and ethane. Theoretical and Experimental Chemistry, 2018, 54(1): 66–72

[145] He B , Li Z , Zhang H , Dai F , Li K , Liu R , Zhang S . Synthesis of vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts assisted by deep-eutectic solvents for n-butane selective oxidation. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2019, 58(8): 2857–2867

[146] Zhang Q , Fang W , Wang L , Li G , Zhao Y . Effect of amount of additional water during ionothermal synthesis process on physicochemical properties of vanadium phosphate catalyst material. Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 2021, 298: 122119

[147] Welton T . Ionic liquids in catalysis. Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 2004, 248(21–24): 2459–2477

[148] Jin X , Feng J , Ma Q , Song H , Liu Q , Xu B , Zhang M , Li S , Yu S . Integration of a phosphine ligand into an ionic liquid: a highly effective biphasic system for the Rh-catalyzed hydroformylation of 1-octene. Green Chemistry, 2019, 21(12): 3267–3275

[149] Anthony J L , Anderson J L , Maginn E J , Brennecke J F . Anion effects on gas solubility in ionic liquids. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2005, 109(13): 6366–6374

[150] Favre F , Olivier-Bourbigou H , Commereuc D , Saussine L . Hydroformylation of 1-hexene with rhodium in non-aqueous ionic liquids: how to design the solvent and the ligand to the reaction. Chemical Communications, 2001, (15): 1360–1361

[151] Farmer V , Welton T . The oxidation of alcohols in substituted imidazolium ionic liquids using ruthenium catalysts. Green Chemistry, 2002, 4(2): 97–102

[152] He B , Zhong S , Li K , Wei S , Li M , Liu R . Ionic liquids: the emerging “cardiotonic” for photocatalytic materials. Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 2025, 529: 216461

[153] Meenu M , Bansal V , Rana S , Sharma N , Kumar V , Arora V , Garg M . Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs): designer solvents for green extraction of anthocyanin. Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 2023, 34: 101168

[154] El Achkar T , Greige-Gerges H , Fourmentin S . Basics and properties of deep eutectic solvents: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2021, 19(4): 3397–3408

[155] Kaur G , Kumar H , Singla M . Diverse applications of ionic liquids: a comprehensive review. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 2022, 351: 118556

[156] Zhao Y , Zhang W , Wang S , Dong P , Li G , Shen J . Ionic liquid-assisted synthesis of vanadium phosphate catalysts from phosphorous acid for selective oxidation reactions. Catalysis Letters, 2021, 151(8): 2366–2375

[157] He B , Li Y , Zhang T , Shi Y , Li K , Dai F , Zhang R , Liu R , Zhang S . Synthesis of porous and highly crystallinity vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts by multifunctional biomass-based deep eutectic solvents. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2020, 124(18): 3743–3753

[158] Faizan M , Li H , Liu Y , Li K , Wei S , Zhang R , Liu R . Copper-based deep eutectic solvents (Cu-DES) assisted the VPO catalyst as a structural and electronic promoter for n-butane selective oxidation. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2022, 114: 518–535

[159] Faizan M , Niazi K U K , Nawaz H , Muhammad N , Li H , Dai F , Zhang R , Liu R , Zhang S . Mono-, bi-, and tri-metallic DES are prepared from Nb, Zr, and Mo for n-butane selective oxidation via VPO catalyst. Processes, 2021, 9(9): 1487

[160] Rownaghi A A , Taufiq-Yap Y H , Rezaei F . Innovative process for the synthesis of vanadyl pyrophosphate as a highly selective catalyst for n-butane oxidation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2010, 165(1): 328–335

[161] Rownaghi A A , Taufiq-Yap Y H , Rezaei F . Solvothermal synthesis of vanadium phosphate catalysts for n-butane oxidation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2009, 155(1–2): 514–522

[162] Guilhaume N , Roullet M , Pajonk G , Grzybowska B , Volta J C . Butane oxidation to maleic anhydride on VPO catalysts: the importance of the preparation of the precursor on the control of the local superficial structure. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, 1992, 72: 255–265

[163] Miyake T , Doi T . Importance of a quasistable V₄O₉ to synthesize a highly crystalline VOHPO₄·0.5H₂O. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1995, 131(1): 43–54

[164] Doi T , Miyake T . Influence of alcohol solvents on characters of VOHPO₄·0.5H₂O prepared from V₄O₉ and ortho-H₃PO₄. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997, 164(1-2): 141–148

[165] Lopez-Sanchez J A , Griesel L , Bartley J K , Wells R P K , Liskowski A , Su D , Schlögl R , Volta J C , Hutchings G J . High temperature preparation of vanadium phosphate catalysts using water as solvent. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2003, 5(16): 3525–3533

[166] Zhang T , Zhang R , Zhang Y , Xie Z , Li Y , Wu H , Dai F , Liu R . Phosphoric acid: a key role in control of structure and properties of vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts during synthesis. ChemistrySelect, 2021, 6(4): 513–521

[167] Kiely C J , Burrows A , Hutchings G J , Bere K E , Volta J C , Tuel A , Abon M . Structural transformation sequences occurring during the activation of vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts. Faraday Discussions, 1996, 105: 103

[168] Buchanan J S , Apostolakis J , Sundaresan S . Pretreatment and activation of a vanadium phosphate catalyst for butane oxidation to maleic anhydride. Applied Catalysis, 1985, 19(1): 65–75

[169] Albonetti S , Cavani F , Trifirò F . Key aspects of catalyst design for the selective oxidation of paraffins. Catalysis Reviews: Science and Engineering, 1996, 38(4): 413–438

[170] Sajip S , Bartley J K , Burrows A , Rhodes C , Volta J C , Kiely C J , Hutchings G J . Structural transformation sequence occurring during the activation under n-butane-air of a cobalt-doped vanadium phosphate hemihydrate precursor for mild oxidation to maleic anhydride. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2001, 3(11): 2143–2147

[171] Cheng W H , Wang W . Effect of calcination environment on the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride over promoted and unpromoted VPO catalysts. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997, 156(1): 57–69

[172] Arnold E W III , Sundaresan S . Effect of water vapor on the activity and selectivity characteristics of a vanadium phosphate catalyst towards butane oxidation. Applied Catalysis, 1988, 41: 225–239

[173] Contractor R M , Horowitz H S , Sisler G M , Bordes E . The effects of steam on n-butane oxidation over VPO as studied in a riser reactor. Catalysis Today, 1997, 37(1): 51–57

[174] Cortelli C, Fratalocchi L, Luciani S, Setti L, Cavani F, Grazia L, Tabanelli T. EP Patent, 4486505(A1), 2025–01–08

[175] Cortelli C, Fratalocchi L, Luciani S, Setti L, Cavani F, Grazia L, Tabanelli T. CN Patent, 118695902A, 2024–09–24

[176] Yang D , Sararuk C , Wang H , Zhang S , Li Z , Li C . Effect of metal ion in bulk VPO in aldol condensation of formaldehyde and methyl acetate to methyl acrylate. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2018, 57(1): 93–100

[177] Delimitis A . Ordering of point defects in VPO precursors: effect on doping and catalyst performance. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2010, 376(1–2): 33–39

[178] Thomas C, Andreas R, Gerhard M, Gabriele D, Susanne R. US Patent, 09931618, 2018–04–13

[179] Boecklein S, Gerhard M, Gabriele B, Rene H, Sarah L, Anna W. US Patent, 11400442, 2022–08–02

[180] Cortelli C, Fratalocchi L, Laura, Grazia L, Lorenzo. EP Patent, 4401877, 2024–07–24

[181] Wu H Y , Wang H B , Liu X H , Li J H , Yang M H , Huang C J , Weng W Z , Wan H L . Samarium-modified vanadium phosphate catalyst for the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Applied Surface Science, 2015, 351: 243–249

[182] Takita Y , Tanaka K , Ichimaru S , Mizihara Y , Abe Y , Ishihara T . Incorporation of promoter elements into the crystal lattice of (VO)₂P₂O₇ and its promotion effects on the oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1993, 103(2): 281–290

[183] Ben Abdelouahab F , Olier R , Ziyad M , Volta J C . The role of Fe and Co dopants during the activation of the VO(HPO₄)·0.5H₂O precursor of the vanadium phosphorus catalyst as studied by in situ laser Raman-spectroscopy. Journal of Catalysis, 1995, 157(2): 687–697

[184] Shen S , Zhou J , Zhang F , Zhou L , Li R . Effect of Ce-Fe oxides additives on performance of VPO catalyst for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride in the absence of gas-phase oxygen. Catalysis Today, 2002, 74(1-2): 37–43

[185] Ye D , Satsuma A , Hattori T , Murakami Y . Enhanced activity of promoted (VO)₂P₂O₇ by preferential exposure of the (020) plane. Journal of the Chemical Society. Chemical Communications, 1990, (19): 1337

[186] Ye D , Satsuma A , Hattori T , Murakami Y . Number of surface V=O species of promoted (VO)₂P₂O₇ catalysts. Applied Catalysis, 1991, 69(1): L1–L5

[187] Ye D Q , Fu M L , Liang H , Cheng S Z , Pang X S . Influence of additives on various VPO catalysts prepared by coprecipitation process. Journal of South China University of Technology (Natural Science Edition), 2004, 32(1): 49–55

[188] Taufiq-Yap Y H , Nurul Suziana N M , Hussein M Z . Influences of the various metal dopants for the nanosized vanadium phosphate catalysts. Catalysis Letters, 2011, 141(1): 136–148

[189] Hood D M , Johnson R A , Carpenter A E , Younker J M , Vinyard D J , Stanley G G . Highly active cationic cobalt(II) hydroformylation catalysts. Science, 2020, 367(6477): 542–548

[190] Choojun K , Worathanaseth A , Kuhatasanadeekul S , Kurato T , Ketaniruj S , Phichitsurathaworn P , Promchana P , Prakobtham K , Numwong N , Poo-arporn Y . . Effect of cobalt complex precursors on reactivity of cationic cobalt catalysts: cyclohexane dehydrogenation. Catalysis Communications, 2019, 125: 108–113

[191] Kim K , Kang D W , Choi Y , Kim W , Lee H , Lee J W . Improved H₂ utilization by Pd doping in cobalt catalysts for reductive amination of polypropylene glycol. RSC Advances, 2020, 10(73): 45159–45169

[192] Dey S , Dhal G C , Mohan D , Prasad R , Gupta R N . Cobalt doped CuMnO_x catalysts for the preferential oxidation of carbon monoxide. Applied Surface Science, 2018, 441: 303–316

[193] Araki T , Devred F , Gaigneaux E M , Hara T , Ichikuni N . Effect of the cobalt addition on benzene oxidation of supported MnO_x nanocluster catalysts. Chemistry Letters, 2024, 53(11): upae201

[194] Hutchings G J . Vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts for the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Today, 1993, 16(1): 139–146

[195] Sajip S , Bartley J K , Burrows A , Sanane´s-Schulz M T , Tuel A , Claude Volta J , Kiely C J , Hutchings G J . Structure-activity relationships for Co- and Fe-promoted vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts. New Journal of Chemistry, 2001, 25(1): 125–130

[196] Zazhigalov V A , Haber J , Stoch J , Pyatnitzkaya A I , Komashko G A , Belousov V M . Properties of cobalt-promoted (VO)₂P₂O₇ in the oxidation of butane. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1993, 96(2): 135–150

[197] Cornaglia L M , Carrara C R , Petunchi J O , Lombardo E A . The role of cobalt as promoter of equilibrated vanadium-phosphorus-oxygen catalysts. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1999, 183(1): 177–187

[198] Cornaglia L M , Carrara C R , Petunchi J O , Lombardo E A . Characterization of cobalt-impregnated VPO catalysts. Catalysis Today, 2000, 57(3–4): 313–322

[199] Sananés-Schulz M T , Abdelouahab F B , Hutchings G J , Volta J C . On the role of Fe and Co dopants during the activation of the VO(HPO₄)·0.5H₂O precursor of the vanadium phosphorus catalyst as studied by in situ laser Raman spectroscopy. Journal of Catalysis, 1996, 163(2): 346–353

[200] Sananés M T , Petunchi J O , Lombardo E A . The effect of Zn, Ti, and Zr used as additives in VPO formulations. Catalysis Today, 1992, 15(3–4): 527–535

[201] Pierini B T , Lombardo E A . Cr, Mo, and W used as VPO promoters in the partial oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Today, 2005, 107–108: 323–329

[202] Sant R , Varma A . Selective oxidation of butane to maleic anhydride on a vanadium-phosphorus oxide catalyst: promotional effects of zirconium. Journal of Catalysis, 1993, 143(1): 215–226

[203] Sanchez J C , Lopez-Sanchez J A , Wells R P K , Rhodes C , Hutchings G J . Effect of group 13 compounds and bulky organic oxygenates as structural promoters for the selective oxidation of n-butane with vanadium phosphorus oxide catalysts. New Journal of Chemistry, 2001, (12): 1528–1536

[204] Duarte de Farias A M , Gonzalez W D A , Pries De Oliveira P G , Eon J G , Herrmann J M , Aouine M , Loridant S , Volta J C . Vanadium phosphorus oxide catalyst modified by niobium doping for mild oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Journal of Catalysis, 2002, 208(1): 238–246

[205] He B , Nan L , Li Z , Wen B , Niu J , Liu R . Effect of Mo species on the selective oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride over Mo-promoted VPP. ChemistrySelect, 2019, 4(2): 662–669

[206] Faizan M , Aamir E , Kiong T S , Song H . Role of the catalyst structure-activity relationship in enhancing the selective oxidation yield of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Science & Technology, 2024, 14(17): 5009–5031

[207] Abdelouahad K A L B , Roullet M , Brun M , Burrows A , Kiely C J , Volta J C , Abon M . Surface alteration of (VO)₂P₂O₇ by α-Sb₂O₄ as a route to control the n-butane selective oxidation. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2001, 210(1–2): 121–136

[208] Overbeek R A , Pekelharing A R C J , Van Dillen A J , Geus J W . Preparation, characterization, and testing of newly developed silica-supported V–P–O catalysts. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1996, 135(2): 231–248

[209] Overbeek R A , Bosma E J , De Blauw D W H , Van Dillen A J , Bruil H G , Geus J W . The hydrolysis behavior of vanadium species in aqueous solutions and their adsorption on alumina, silica, and titania surfaces. Applied Catalysis: General, 1997, 163(1–2): 129–144

[210] Berenguer R , Guerrero-Pérez M O , Guzmán I , Rodríguez-Mirasol J , Cordero T . Synthesis of vanadium oxide nanofibers with variable crystallinity and V⁵⁺/V⁴⁺ ratios. ACS Omega, 2017, 2(11): 7739–7745

[211] Li X K , Ji W J , Zhao J , Zhang Z , Au C T . A comparison study on the partial oxidation of n-butane and propane over VPO catalysts supported on SBA-15, MCM-41, and fumed SiO₂. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2006, 306: 8–16

[212] Li X K , Ji W J , Zhao J , Zhang Z B , Au C T . n-Butane oxidation over VPO catalysts supported on SBA-15. Journal of Catalysis, 2006, 238(1): 232–241

[213] Wu H Y , Jin P , Sun Y F , Yang M H , Huang C J , Weng W Z , Wan H L . Enhancing catalytic performance of phosphorus-modified ceria supported VPO catalysts for n-butane oxidation. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A Chemical, 2016, 414: 1–8

[214] Birkeland K E , Babitz S M , Bethke G K , Kung H H , Coulston G W , Bare S R . Supported VPO catalysts for selective oxidation of butane II: characterization of VPO/SiO₂ catalysts. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 1997, 101(35): 6895–6902

[215] Harding W D , Birkeland K E , Kung H H . Selective oxidation of butane on phosphorus-modified silica supported vanadia catalysts. Catalysis Letters, 1994, 28(1): 1–7

[216] Xiao C Y , Chen X , Wang Z Y , Ji W J , Chen Y , Au C T . The novel and highly selective fumed silica-supported VPO for partial oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride. Catalysis Today, 2004, 93–95: 223–228

[217] Zazhigalov V A , Zaitsev Y P , Belousov V M , Parlitz B , Hanke W , Öhlmann G . Studies of immobilized V–P/SiO₂ catalysts. Reaction Kinetics and Catalysis Letters, 1986, 32(1): 209–214

[218] Lara M M , Real L M , Lopez A J , Gamez S B , Garcia A R . Interaction of amides with VOAO₄·nH₂O (A = P, As). Materials Research Bulletin, 1986, 21(1): 13–22

[219] Bueno J . Supported VPO catalysts for selective oxidation of butane III: effect of preparation procedure and SiO₂ support. Catalysis Today, 1998, 43(1–2): 101–110

[220] Overbeek R A , Warringa P A , Crombag M J D , Visser L M , Van Dillen A J , Geus J W . Preparation, characterization, and testing of newly developed titania supported V–P–O catalysts. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1996, 135(2): 209–230

[221] Lakshmi L J , Narsimha K , Rao P K . Chemisorptive and catalytic properties of V₂O₅ supported on phosphate modified γ-alumina. Applied Catalysis A: General, 1993, 94(1): 61–70

[222] Taufiq-Yap Y H , Leong L K , Irmawati R . n-Butane oxidation over γ-Al₂O₃ supported vanadium phosphate catalysts. Journal of Natural Gas Chemistry, 2007, 16(3): 266–272

[223] Mikolajska E , Garcia E R , Medina R L , Lewandowska A E , Fierro J L G , Bañares M A . Alumina support-stabilized nanoscaled vanadium-phosphorous mixed oxides as new catalysts for propane ammoxidation. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2011, 404(1-2): 93–102

[224] Mikolajska E , Rasmussen S B , Lewandowska A E , Bañares M A . Operando and in situ Raman studies of alumina-supported vanadium phosphate catalysts in propane ammoxidation reaction: activity, selectivity, and active phase formation. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2012, 14(7): 2128–2136

[225] Do N T , Baerns M . Effect of support material on the catalytic performance of V₂O₅/P₂O₅ catalysts for the selective oxidation of but-l-ene and furan to maleic anhydride and its consecutive nonselective oxidation. Applied Catalysis, 1988, 45(1): 1–7

[226] Do N T , Baerns M . Effect of support material on the adsorption structures of furan and maleic anhydride on the surface of V₂O₅/P₂O₅ catalysts. Applied Catalysis, 1988, 45(1): 9–26

[227] Feng R , Yang X , Ji W , Chen Y , Au C . VPO catalysts supported on H₃PO₄-treated ZrO₂ highly active for n-butane oxidation. Journal of Catalysis, 2007, 246(1): 166–176

[228] Wachs I E , Jehng J M , Deo G , Weckhuysen B M , Guliants V V , Benziger J B , Sundaresan S . Fundamental studies of butane oxidation over model-supported vanadium oxide catalysts: molecular structure-reactivity relationships. Journal of Catalysis, 1997, 170(1): 75–88

[229] Ledoux M J , Crouzet C , Pham-Huu C , Turines V , Kourtakis K , Mills P L , Lerou J J . High-yield butane to maleic anhydride direct oxidation on vanadyl pyrophosphate supported on heat-conductive materials: β-SiC, Si₃N₄, and BN. Journal of Catalysis, 2001, 203(2): 495–508

[230] Zhang Q , Gao S , Yu J . Metal sites in zeolites: synthesis, characterization, and catalysis. Chemical Reviews, 2023, 123(9): 6039–6106

[231] Nie W , Wang X , Ji W , Yan Q , Chen Y , Au C T . A study on VPO specimen supported on aluminum-containing MCM-41 for partial oxidation of n-butane to MA. Catalysis Letters, 2001, 76(3/4): 201–206

[232] Nie W , Wang Z , Ji W , Chen Y , Au C T . Comparative studies on the VPO specimen supported on mesoporous Al-containing MCM-41 and large-pore silica. Applied Catalysis A: General, 2003, 244(2): 265–272

[233] Santra C , Shah S , Mondal A , Pandey J K , Panda A B , Maity S , Chowdhury B . Synthesis, characterization of VPO catalyst dispersed on mesoporous silica surface and catalytic activity for cyclohexane oxidation reaction. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 2016, 223: 121–128

[234] Lam E , Luong J H T . Carbon materials as catalyst supports and catalysts in the transformation of biomass to fuels and chemicals. ACS Catalysis, 2014, 4(10): 3393–3410

[235] He B , Feng M , Chen X , Sun J . Multidimensional (0D–3D) functional nanocarbon: promising material to strengthen the photocatalytic activity of graphitic carbon nitride. Green Energy & Environment, 2021, 6(6): 823–845

[236] Frey J , Sang Ooi Y , Thomas B , Reddy Marthala V R , Bressel A , Schölkopf T , Hunger M . Vanadium phosphates on mesoporous supports: model catalysts for solid-state NMR studies of the selective oxidation of n-butane. Solid State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, 2009, 35(2): 130–137

[237] Wang Z , Jiang Y , Yang W , Li A , Hunger M , Baiker A , Huang J . Tailoring single site VO₄ on flame-made V/Al₂O₃ catalysts for selective oxidation of n-butane. Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 413: 93–105

[238] Rüther F , Machado R , Gioria E , Kunz S L , Wittich K , Löser P , Geske M , Schunk S A , Glaum R , Rosowski F . Niobium insertion into α_II-VOPO₄: tuning the catalytic properties for selective oxidation. ACS Catalysis, 2023, 13(5): 3295–3307

[239] Stegmann N , Ochoa-Hernández C , Truong K N , Petersen H , Weidenthaler C , Schmidt W . The mechanism and pathway of selective partial oxidation of n-butane to maleic anhydride studied on titanium phosphate catalysts. ACS Catalysis, 2023, 13(24): 15833–15840

[240] Roy S C , Glaum R , Abdullin D , Schiemann O , Bac N Q , Lii K H . Solid solution formation between vanadium(V) and tungsten(V) oxide phosphate. Journal of Inorganic General Chemistry, 2014, 640(10): 1876–1885

[241] Roy S C , Yeasmin L , Rahman M . Synthesis and characterization of biobium and tungsten substituted VOPO₄. Journal of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences, 2019, 43(1): 31–37

[242] Milberger E C, Bremer N J, Wong E K T. US Patent, 781155L, 1978–04–03

[243] Shi Y , Dai F , Zhang T , He B , Zhang R , Liu R , Ren B . Hydroxyl-rich deep eutectic solvents assistant synthesis of VPO and its application in selective oxidation of n-butane. ChemistrySelect, 2020, 5(23): 6907–6917

[244] Witko M , Tokarz R , Haber J , Hermann K . Electronic structure of vanadyl pyrophosphate: cluster model studies. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A Chemical, 2001, 166(1): 59–72

[245] Haras A , Witko M , Salahub D R , Duarte H A . Chemical nature of point defects at the (VO)₂P₂O₇ (100) surface. Surface Science, 2003, 538(3): 160–170

[246] Cheng M J , Goddard W A III , Fu R . The reduction-coupled oxo activation (ROA) mechanism responsible for the catalytic selective activation and functionalization of n-butane to maleic anhydride by vanadium phosphate oxide. Topics in Catalysis, 2014, 57(14–16): 1171–1187

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press