Design, modelling, testing and application of hydraulic suspension components for rail vehicles: a state-of-the-art review

Abstract

Rail transport is a safe, efficient and ecological way to meet the growing demand for a more connected and developed society. In the last decades, the development of passenger rail vehicles with improved ride quality and higher commercial speed have been supported by the research and optimization of new suspension components. Hydraulic suspension components (HSCs) represent a significant share of the most recent innovations proposed in this context. This paper provides a state-of-the-art review of the design, modelling, testing and application of HSCs, also discussing the effect of degradation and failure in these components. The paper aims to highlight the most recent advancements in these fields and the emerging trends that will likely be addressed in the near future to further support the development of new rail vehicles.

Keywords

Damper / Hybrid simulation / Railway dynamics / Active suspensions / Stability / Curving / Ride quality

References

[1] Stichel S, Orlova A, Berg M (2019) Suspension elements and their characteristics. Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton

[2] Fu B, Hossein-Nia S, Stichel S, et al.. Study on active wheelset steering from the perspective of wheel wear evolution. Veh Syst Dyn, 2022, 60(3): 906-929

[3] Giossi RL, Persson R, Stichel S. Wheel wear reduction of a mechatronic two-axle vehicle controlled with feedforward wheelset steering approaches. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(4): 1037-1062

[4] Tian S, Luo X, Xiao C, et al.. Distribution method of active steering control for rail vehicles based on overdrive characteristics. IEEE Trans Veh Technol, 2023, 72(12): 15634-15647

[5] Hwang I-K, Hur H-M, Kim M-J, et al.. Analysis of the active control of steering bogies for the dynamic characteristics on real track conditions. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2018, 232(3): 722-733

[6] Huang Y, Dai H, Shi H, et al.. Influence of nonlinear motor suspension parameters on Hopf bifurcation characteristics of high-speed bogie. J Vib Control, 2026, 32(7–8): 1289-1302

[7] Alfi S, Mazzola L, Bruni S. Effect of motor connection on the critical speed of high-speed railway vehicles. Veh Syst Dyn, 2008, 46(sup1): 201-214

[8] Wang W, Zhou Z, Zhang W, et al.. A new nonlinear displacement-dependent parametric model of a high-speed rail pantograph hydraulic damper. Veh Syst Dyn, 2020, 58(2): 272-289

[9] Allotta B, Pugi L, Bartolini F. An active suspension system for railway pantographs: the T2006 prototype. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2009, 223(1): 15-29

[10] Polach O, Berg M, Iwnicki S (2019) Simulation of railway vehicle dynamics. Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton

[11] Dixon JC. The Shock Absorber Handbook, 2007, Hoboken, Wiley

[12] Huang C, Zeng J. Innovative on-off yaw dampers with switchable dynamic stiffness for enhanced stability of high-speed railway vehicles. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2025, 239(4): 352-370

[13] Huang C, Zeng J. Dynamic behaviour of a high-speed train hydraulic yaw damper. Veh Syst Dyn, 2018, 56(12): 1922-1944

[14] Jiang C, Zhang H, Ling L, et al.. Modelling and simulation of nonlinear dynamic characteristics of yaw dampers subjected to variable temperature operation condition of high-speed trains. Nonlinear Dyn, 2023, 111(20): 18931-18952

[15] Alonso A, Giménez JG, Gomez E. Yaw damper modelling and its influence on railway dynamic stability. Veh Syst Dyn, 2011, 49(9): 1367-1387

[16] Gao H, Chi M, Dai L, et al.. Mathematical modelling and computational simulation of the hydraulic damper during the orifice-working stage for railway vehicles. Math Probl Eng, 2020, 2020: 1830150

[17] Wang WL, Yu DS, Zhou Z. In-service parametric modelling a rail vehicle’s axle-box hydraulic damper for high-speed transit problems. Mech Syst Signal Process, 2015, 62(63): 517-533

[18] Di Gialleonardo E, Facchinetti A, Bruni S. Control of an integrated lateral and roll suspension for a high-speed railway vehicle. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(2): 472-498

[19] Di Gialleonardo E, Santelia M, Bruni S, et al.. A simple active carbody roll scheme for hydraulically actuated railway vehicles using internal model control. ISA Trans, 2022, 120: 55-69

[20] Isacchi G, Ripamonti F. On the implementation of hydraulic-interconnected-suspensions at the primary suspension stage of high-speed rail vehicles. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2024, 238(9): 1096-1107

[21] Liu M, Zhang N, Zheng M, et al.. A study of a novel hydraulically interconnected anti-hunting damping system for high-speed trains. Multibody Syst Dyn, 2026, 66(1): 155-180

[22] Yao Y, Chen X, Li H, et al.. Suspension parameters design for robust and adaptive lateral stability of high-speed train. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(4): 943-967

[23] Chen X, Shen L, Hu X, et al.. Suspension parameter optimal design to enhance stability and wheel wear in high-speed trains. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(5): 1230-1252

[24] Song Y, Qi Y, et al.. Multi-parameter optimization based on a surrogate model for improving vehicle dynamics and reducing wheel wear in high-speed EMUs. Veh Syst Dyn, 2026, 64(2): 251-274

[25] Li G, Zhou Y, Yao Y, et al.. Application of yaw dampers with frequency-selective damping to improve the locomotive adaptability to low/high conicity stability. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2023, 237(6): 784-795

[26] Isacchi G, Ripamonti F, Corsi M. Innovative passive yaw damper to increase the stability and curve-taking performance of high-speed railway vehicles. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(9): 2273-2291

[27] Lewis TD, Jiang JZ, Neild SA, et al.. Using an inerter-based suspension to improve both passenger comfort and track wear in railway vehicles. Veh Syst Dyn, 2020, 58(3): 472-493

[28] Zhou Y, Tian Q, Hecht M. Application of hydraulic arm bushings with frequency-dependent stiffness to compromise hunting stability and curve negotiation performance for a passenger coach. J Vib Eng Technol, 2024, 12(7): 8839-8849

[29] Goodall RM, Mei TX (2019) Active suspensions. Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton

[30] Isacchi G, Ripamonti F, Corsi M, et al.. Improving curving Performances of High-speed Rail Vehicles with Semi-active Yaw Dampers, 2024, Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, Advances in Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks III

[31] Ripamonti F, Chiarabaglio A. A smart solution for improving ride comfort in high-speed railway vehicles. J Vib Control, 2019, 25(13): 1958-1973

[32] Wu Y, Gan F, Shi H, et al.. Experimental investigations on the semi-active control of a valve-driven secondary lateral damper for a high-speed rail vehicle. J Vib Control, 2023, 29(13–14): 3025-3037

[33] Wang X, Liu B, Di Gialleonardo E, et al.. Application of semi-active yaw dampers for the improvement of the stability of high-speed rail vehicles: mathematical models and numerical simulation. Veh Syst Dyn, 2022, 60(8): 2608-2635

[34] Ahmadian M. Magneto-rheological suspensions for improving ground vehicle’s ride comfort, stability, and handling. Veh Syst Dyn, 2017, 55(10): 1618-1642

[35] Wang F, Tanaka M, Nakada N, et al.. Development of an ER bypass damper for railway car relief couplers. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech, 2004, 19(1–4): 269-274

[36] Chonan S, Tanaka M, Naruse T, et al.. Development of an electrorheological active buffer for railway vehicles—estimation of the capacity from prototype performance. Smart Mater Struct, 2004, 13(5): 1195-1202

[37] Fu B, Di Gialleonardo E, Liu B, et al.. Modelling, hardware-in-the-loop tests and numerical simulation of magneto-rheological semi-active primary suspensions in a railway vehicle. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(6): 1471-1494

[38] Jeniš F, Michálek T, Kubík M, et al.. Semi-active yaw dampers in locomotive running gear: new control algorithms and verification of their stabilising effect. J Vib Control, 2025, 31(13–14): 2538-2549

[39] Oh J-S, Shin Y-J, Koo H-W, et al.. Vibration control of a semi-active railway vehicle suspension with magneto-rheological dampers. Adv Mech Eng, 2016, 8(4): 1687814016643638

[40] Liao Y, Liu Y, Yang S. Semiactive control of high-speed railway vehicle suspension systems with magnetorheological dampers. Shock Vib, 2019, 2019: 5279380

[41] Kim H-C, Shin Y-J, You W, et al.. A ride quality evaluation of a semi-active railway vehicle suspension system with MR damper: railway field tests. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2017, 231(3): 306-316

[42] Guo C, Gong X, Zong L, et al.. Twin-tube- and bypass-containing magneto-rheological damper for use in railway vehicles. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2015, 229(1): 48-57

[43] Bruni S, Vinolas J, Berg M, et al.. Modelling of suspension components in a rail vehicle dynamics context. Veh Syst Dyn, 2011, 49(7): 1021-1072

[44] Chen X, Yao Y, Shen L, et al.. Multi-objective optimization of high-speed train suspension parameters for improving hunting stability. Int J Rail Transp, 2022, 10(2): 159-176

[45] Shi H, Zeng J, Qu S. Linear stability analysis of a high-speed rail vehicle concerning suspension parameters variation and active control. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(11): 2976-2998

[46] Isacchi G, Shi H, Ripamonti et al (2025) Effect of yaw damper on different hunting motions of high-speed trains under various vehicle configurations. ICRT 2024. Shanghai, pp 535–545

[47] La Paglia I, Rapino L, Ripamonti F, et al.. Modelling and experimental characterization of secondary suspension elements for rail vehicle ride comfort simulation. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2024, 238(1): 38-47

[48] British Standards Institution. Railway applications—suspension components—hydraulic dampers. BS EN, 2013, 13802: 2013

[49] Mellado AC, Gomez E, Vinolas J. Advances on railway yaw damper characterisation exposed to small displacements. Int J Heavy Veh Syst, 2006, 13(4): 263

[50] Chen X, Zhou Y, et al.. Improving the stability of high-speed trains using an innovative passive yaw damper. Veh Syst Dyn, 2026, 64(1): 226-249

[51] Teng W, Shi H, Luo R, et al.. Improved nonlinear model of a yaw damper for simulating the dynamics of a high-speed train. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2019, 233(7): 651-665

[52] Isacchi G, Corsi M, Ripamonti F (2025) Influence of yaw damper modelling on multibody simulations of rail vehicles. ICRT 2024. Shanghai, pp 476–484

[53] Guo Z, Chi M, Sun J, et al.. Experimental and numerical research on the bogie hunting of a high-speed train caused by the empty stroke of yaw damper. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(7): 1637-1657

[54] Isacchi G, Ripamonti F, Corsi M. A meta-heuristic optimization procedure for the identification of the nonlinear model parameters of hydraulic dampers based on experimental dataset of real working conditions. J Comput Nonlinear Dyn, 2023, 18(9 091004

[55] Ren J, Li Q, Ren Z, et al.. Availability of five hydraulic damper models for dynamics simulation and application of two types of high-speed electrical multiple units. Int J Rail Transp, 2025, 13(6): 1239-1254

[56] Jeniš F, Michálek T, Kubík M, et al.. The influence of semi-actively controlled magnetorheological bogie yaw dampers on the guiding behaviour of a railway vehicle in an S-curve: Simulation and on-track test. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2025, 239(1): 29-38

[57] Bouc R (1967) Forced vibration of mechanical systems with hysteresis. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on Nonlinear Oscillation. Prague, pp 315

[58] Wen Y-K. Method for random vibration of hysteretic systems. J Engrg Mech Div, 1976, 102(2): 249-263

[59] Wang DH, Liao WH. Magnetorheological fluid dampers: a review of parametric modelling. Smart Mater Struct, 2011, 20(2 023001

[60] Yang G, Spencer BFJr, Jung H-J, et al.. Dynamic modeling of large-scale magnetorheological damper systems for civil engineering applications. J Eng Mech, 2004, 130(9): 1107-1114

[61] Wang DH, Liao WH (2009) Semi-active suspension systems for railway vehicles using magnetorheological dampers. Part I: system integration and modelling. Veh Syst Dyn 47(11):1305–1325

[62] Zong LH, Gong XL, Xuan SH, et al.. Semi-active H∞ control of high-speed railway vehicle suspension with magnetorheological dampers. Veh Syst Dyn, 2013, 51(5): 600-626

[63] Fu B, Liu B, Di Gialleonardo E, et al.. Dynamics and Control of MR Damper in Railway Vehicle Semi-active Primary Suspension, 2024, Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, Advances in Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks III

[64] Wu Y, Zeng J, Shi H, et al.. A hybrid damping control strategy for high-speed trains running on existing tracks. J Low Freq Noise Vib Act Control, 2022, 41(3): 1258-1271

[65] Li Z, Ni YQ, Dai H, et al.. Viscoelastic plastic continuous physical model of a magnetorheological damper applied in the high-speed train. Sci China Technol Sci, 2013, 56(10): 2433-2446

[66] Bahar A, Pozo F, Meybodi MR, et al.. Magnetorheological fluid dampers: a close look at efficient parametric models. Struct Control Health Monit, 2024, 2024: 6860185

[67] Huang L, Zeng J, Zhou X, et al.. Mechanical model of yaw damper and its application in the simulation of vehicle system dynamics. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng, 2018, 397 012051

[68] Deng X, Zhou Y, et al.. Modelling and application of yaw damper with frequency-selective damping on railway vehicles. Veh Syst Dyn, 2026, 64(3): 646-667

[69] Merritt HE. Hydraulic Control Systems, 1991, New York, John Wiley & Sons

[70] Isacchi G, Nayir FE, Corsi M, et al.. Hydraulic interconnected suspension for rail vehicles: a preliminary analysis. Vib Proced, 2023, 50: 91-97

[71] Van Kasteel R, Wang CG, Qian L, et al.. A new shock absorber model for use in vehicle dynamics studies. Veh Syst Dyn, 2005, 43(9): 613-631

[72] Miller DS (1990) Internal flow systems. British Hydromechanics Research Association, Cranfield

[73] Wang WL, Huang Y, Yang XJ, et al.. Non-linear parametric modelling of a high-speed rail hydraulic yaw damper with series clearance and stiffness. Nonlinear Dyn, 2011, 65(1): 13-34

[74] Mwakitabu S, Ichchou M, Bareille O, et al.. Modelling and simulating the primary vertical hydraulic railway dampers DISPEN. J Phys: Conf Ser, 2024, 2909(1012018

[75] Huang C, Ye Y, Zeng J, et al.. Stability assessment of railway vehicles considering undefined nonlinearity in static force–velocity characteristics of hydraulic yaw dampers. Veh Syst Dyn, 2026, 64(3): 544-567

[76] Wang WL, Zhou ZR, Yu DS, et al.. Rail vehicle dynamic response to a nonlinear physical ‘in-service’ model of its secondary suspension hydraulic dampers. Mech Syst Signal Process, 2017, 95: 138-157

[77] Wang W, Liang Y, Zhang W, et al.. Effect of the nonlinear displacement-dependent characteristics of a hydraulic damper on high-speed rail pantograph dynamics. Nonlinear Dyn, 2019, 95(4): 3439-3464

[78] Farjoud A, Ahmadian M, Craft M, et al.. Nonlinear modeling and experimental characterization of hydraulic dampers: effects of shim stack and orifice parameters on damper performance. Nonlinear Dyn, 2012, 67(2): 1437-1456

[79] Boresi AP, Chong KP, Lee JD. Elasticity in engineEring Mechanics, 2010, New York, Wiley

[80] Bird RB, Stewart WE, Lightfoot EN. Transport Phenomena, 2006, New York, Wiley

[81] Zeng P, Dai L, Chi M, et al.. The performance failure of yaw damper caused by air entering its inner tube and its impact on hunting instability of an intercity train. Eng Fail Anal, 2025, 169 109147

[82] Isacchi G, Ripamonti F. A robust and fail-safe semi-active vertical damper to improve ride comfort. Veh Syst Dyn, 2025, 63(11): 2039-2061

[83] Chen X, Yao Y, Su H et al (2026) Modeling and TF-BPNN inverse modeling of a magnetorheological damper. J Vib Control, 10775463261420711

[84] Tang Z, Hu Y, Qu Z. Enhancing nonlinear dynamics analysis of railway vehicles with artificial intelligence: a state-of-the-art review. Nonlinear Dyn, 2024, 112(17): 14687-14717

[85] Dai L, Chi M, Guo Z, et al.. A physical model-neural network coupled modelling methodology of the hydraulic damper for railway vehicles. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(2): 616-637

[86] Liu J, Jin X. Research on the vibration insulation of high-speed train bogies in mid and high frequency. Shock Vib, 2018, 2018: 6759105

[87] Wang Q, Xiao X, Han J, et al.. Vehicle modelling for high-frequency vibration transmission through primary suspensions. Veh Syst Dyn, 2026, 64(3): 568-610

[88] Xiao X, Wang Q, Zhang Y, et al.. The dynamic characteristics of the hydraulic damper on the high-frequency vibration transmission of the bogie. Int J Rail Transp, 2025, 13(6): 1219-1238

[89] Wang Q, Xiao X, Han J, et al.. High frequency traction rod model and its structure-borne sound transmission characteristic of high-speed trains. Sci Rep, 2025, 15: 12940

[90] Sañudo A, Nieto J, Pérez J, et al.. High frequency modelling and validation of railway dampers. Int J Heavy Veh Syst, 2013, 20(4): 312

[91] Bruni S, Belforte P, Cera A et al (2008) Experimental investigation of yaw damper performances: an improved and harmonised testing methodology developed within ModTrain EU project. In: the WCRR’08 International Conference, Seoul, 1–12

[92] Shi H, Gan F, Zeng J. Experimental investigations of valve-controlled dampers for enhanced ride comfort on high-speed rail vehicles. IEEE Trans Ind Electron, 2025, 72(9): 9465-9474

[93] Liu M, Zhang N, et al.. A variable stiffness anti-roll system for railway vehicles based on a hydraulic interconnection approach. Veh Syst Dyn, 2025, 63(4): 798-824

[94] Huang C, Zeng J, Liang S. Carbody hunting investigation of a high speed passenger car. J Mech Sci Technol, 2013, 27(8): 2283-2292

[95] Xia Z, Zhou J, Gong D, et al.. Theoretical study on the effect of the anti-yaw damper for rail vehicles. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci, 2020, 234(2): 457-473

[96] Huang C, Shi M, Zeng J. Comparison of evaluation methods for the dynamic characteristics of railway hydraulic dampers. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2025, 239(3): 290-303

[97] Luo R, Teng W, Wu X, et al.. Dynamics simulation of a high-speed railway car operating in low-temperature environments with stochastic parameters. Veh Syst Dyn, 2020, 58(12): 1914-1934

[98] Huang C, Zeng J. Comparison of the Maxwell model and a simplified physical model for a railway yaw damper in damping characteristics and vehicle stability assessment. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2022, 236(3): 275-287

[99] Wang WL, Yu DS, Huang Y, et al.. A locomotive’s dynamic response to in-service parameter variations of its hydraulic yaw damper. Nonlinear Dyn, 2014, 77(4): 1485-1502

[100] Isacchi G, Ripamonti F, Corsi M et al (2022) A smart passive yaw damper for the reduction of lateral contact forces in low-radius curved tracks. In: WCCM-APCOM 2022. Yokohama, pp 1–10

[101] Facchinetti A, Gasparetto L, Bruni S. Real-time catenary models for the hardware-in-the-loop simulation of the pantograph–catenary interaction. Veh Syst Dyn, 2013, 51(4): 499-516

[102] Gil J, Tur M, Correcher A, et al.. Hardware-in-the-loop pantograph tests using analytical catenary models. Veh Syst Dyn, 2022, 60(10): 3504-3518

[103] Bruni S, Bucca G, Facchinetti A, et al.. Recent developments on pantograph-overhead line interaction. Veh Syst Dyn, 2025, 63(7): 1358-1394

[104] Conti R, Meli E, Ridolfi A, et al.. An innovative hardware in the loop architecture for the analysis of railway braking under degraded adhesion conditions through roller-rigs. Mechatronics, 2014, 24(2): 139-150

[105] Allotta B, Conti R, Meli E, et al.. Development of a HIL railway roller rig model for the traction and braking testing activities under degraded adhesion conditions. Int J Non Linear Mech, 2013, 57: 50-64

[106] Isacchi G, Ripamonti F. An experimental methodology to support development of yaw damper prototypes based on a hardware-in-the-loop test bench. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(10): 2614-2631

[107] Yang S, Zhao Y, Liu Y, et al.. A new semi-active control strategy on lateral suspension systems of high-speed trains and its application in HIL test rig. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(5): 1317-1344

[108] Li H, Isacchi G, Zhang B, et al.. Non-Hertzian wheel-rail contact modelling for real-time simulation: a case study in hardware-in-the-loop test. Int J Rail Transp, 2026, 14(3): 613-632

[109] Wang Z, Xiao J, Zhang B, et al.. Performance of real-time hybrid simulation for hunting dampers of high-speed trains. Struct Control Health Monit, 2024, 2024: 4984025

[110] Watanabe N, Iida T, Umehara Y, et al.. Development of oil damper test equipment capable of simulating the actual conditions of railway vehicles. QR RTRI, 2008, 49(1): 1-6

[111] Zhao Y, Liu Y, Yang S, et al.. Analysis on new semi-active control strategies to reduce lateral vibrations of high-speed trains by simulation and hardware-in-the-loop testing. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2022, 236(8): 960-972

[112] Kwak MK, Lee J-H, Yang D-H, et al.. Hardware-in-the-loop simulation experiment for semi-active vibration control of lateral vibrations of railway vehicle by magneto-rheological fluid damper. Veh Syst Dyn, 2014, 52(7): 891-908

[113] Shen ZY, Hedrick JK, Elkins JA. A comparison of alternative creep force models for rail vehicle dynamic analysis. Veh Syst Dyn, 1983, 12(1–3): 79-83

[114] Allen PD, Zhang W, Liang Y, et al.. Roller rigs. Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics, 2019, 2nd edn, Boca Raton CRC Press

[115] Huo W, Yue B, Liu X et al (2020) The development of stiffness-adjustable anti-yaw damper. In: Proceedings of the 26th Symposium of the International Association of Vehicle System Dynamics. Gothenburg, pp 67–71

[116] Qazizadeh A, Persson R, Stichel S. On-track tests of active vertical suspension on a passenger train. Veh Syst Dyn, 2015, 53(6): 798-811

[117] Qazizadeh A, Persson R, Stichel S. Preparation and execution of on-track tests with active vertical secondary suspension. Int J Railw Tech, 2015, 4(1): 29-46

[118] Jeon C-S, Kim Y-G, Park J-H, et al.. A study on the dynamic behavior of the Korean next-generation high-speed train. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2016, 230(4): 1053-1065

[119] Sugahara Y, Kazato A, Koganei R, et al.. Suppression of vertical bending and rigid-body-mode vibration in railway vehicle car body by primary and secondary suspension control: Results of simulations and running tests using Shinkansen vehicle. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2009, 223(6): 517-531

[120] Li Y, Dai H, Qi Y, et al.. Experimental study of bogie instability monitoring and suppression measures for high-speed EMUs. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2023, 237(10): 1260-1272

[121] Ye Y, Li H, Li F, et al.. Online assessment of train hunting stability by monitoring dynamic wheel–rail displacement: why and how?. Nonlinear Dyn, 2024, 112(14): 11993-12017

[122] Sun J, Chi M, Jiao W, et al.. Modal parameters-based hunting stability analysis of high-speed railway vehicles considering full range of equivalent conicity. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part K J Multi Body Dyn, 2022, 236(3): 422-439

[123] Shi H, Wang J, Wu P, et al.. Field measurements of the evolution of wheel wear and vehicle dynamics for high-speed trains. Veh Syst Dyn, 2018, 56(8): 1187-1206

[124] Sun J, Chi M, Jin X, et al.. Experimental and numerical study on carbody hunting of electric locomotive induced by low wheel–rail contact conicity. Veh Syst Dyn, 2021, 59(2): 203-223

[125] Park J. Investigation of low damped carbody oscillation for Korean high-speed EMU experimental train. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2022, 236(1): 109-121

[126] Guo J, Shi H, Zeng J. Bifurcation and stability analysis of a high-speed rail vehicle with active yaw dampers. J Vib Control, 2024, 30(15–16): 3559-3571

[127] Zhang H, Ran X, Wang X, et al.. Coupling effects of yaw damper and wheel-rail contact on ride quality of railway vehicle. Shock Vib, 2021, 2021: 6692451

[128] Li Y, Chi M, Guo Z, et al.. An abnormal carbody swaying of intercity EMU train caused by low wheel–rail equivalent conicity and damping force unloading of yaw damper. Railw Eng Sci, 2023, 31(3): 252-268

[129] Huang C, Dai H, Qu S. Suppression of carbody hunting for a locomotive caused by low wheel–rail contact conicity by optimising yaw damper location. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(9): 2237-2259

[130] Dong H, Zhao B, Deng Y. Instability phenomenon associated with two typical high speed railway vehicles. Int J Non Linear Mech, 2018, 105: 130-145

[131] Yan Y, Zeng J. Hopf bifurcation analysis of railway bogie. Nonlinear Dyn, 2018, 92(1): 107-117

[132] Zhang X, Li H, Cheng J, et al.. Adaptive stability mechanism of high-speed train employing parallel inerter yaw damper. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(1): 38-57

[133] Mao R, Zeng J, Wang Q, et al.. Hunting stability control of high-speed bogie based on active yaw damper. J Low Freq Noise Vib Act Control, 2024, 43(4): 1827-1841

[134] Mao R, Zeng J, Wang Q, et al.. Simulation and experimental investigation on stability improvement for high-speed railway vehicles. J Vib Control, 2025

[135] Qi Y, Luo S, Zheng Y, et al.. Stability analysis of high speed trains based on active anti-yaw damper control with electro-hydraulic actuator. Veh Syst Dyn, 2026

[136] Zhou J, Shen G, Zhang H, et al.. Application of modal parameters on ride quality improvement of railway vehicles. Veh Syst Dyn, 2008, 46(sup1): 629-641

[137] Kang W, Zeng J, Wang Q, et al.. Self-regulating mixed damping control strategy for mitigating carbody hunting instability and vibration control in high-speed trains. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2026, 240(4): 382-395

[138] Shi H, Zeng J, Duan L. Carbody swaying suppression for a high-speed rail vehicle by utilising active lateral suspension control. Veh Syst Dyn, 2025, 63(10): 1998-2017

[139] Huang C, Zeng J, Liang S. Influence of system parameters on the stability limit of the undisturbed motion of a motor bogie. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2014, 228(5): 522-534

[140] Xu K, Zeng J, Huang CH. Nonlinear stability analysis of motor bogies for high-speed trains. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2019, 233(9): 885-895

[141] Wei L, Zeng J, Huang C, et al.. Hunting stability and dynamic stress analysis of a high-speed bogie using elastic-suspended motors as dynamic vibration absorber. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(9): 2332-2354

[142] Zhang H, Ling L, Stichel S, et al.. Integration of bio-inspired limb-like structure damping into motor suspension of high-speed trains to enhance bogie hunting stability. Railw Eng Sci, 2024, 32(3): 324-343

[143] Yao Y, Wu G, Sardahi Y, et al.. Hunting stability analysis of high-speed train bogie under the frame lateral vibration active control. Veh Syst Dyn, 2018, 56(2): 297-318

[144] Huang C, Zeng J. Stability control of high-speed bogies using an adaptive vibration absorber. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2024, 238(6): 675-691

[145] Huang Y, Dai H, Huang C, et al.. Bifurcation and Active Control of Motor Suspension to Railway Vehicle. Advances in Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks III, 2024, Cham, Springer Nature Switzerland

[146] Fujimoto H, Miyamoto M. Measures to reduce the lateral vibration of the tail car in a high speed train. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 1996, 210(2): 87-93

[147] Wang W, Wu Z, Liu S, et al.. Optimisation of an inter-vehicle damper for a high-speed train. Veh Syst Dyn, 2024, 62(10): 2703-2728

[148] Wang W, Liu S, Wu D. Effect of an inter-vehicle damper on the dynamics of a high-speed train. Vib Proced, 2023, 50: 77-83

[149] Bustos A, Rubio H, Castejon C, et al.. Effect of the secondary suspension and intercar links on the performance of a high-speed train. Mech Mach Theory, 2025, 215 106167

[150] Wickens AH. A history of railway vehicle dynamics. Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics, 2019, 2nd edn, Boca Raton CRC Press

[151] Bruni S, Goodall R, Mei TX, et al.. Control and monitoring for railway vehicle dynamics. Veh Syst Dyn, 2007, 45(7–8): 743-779

[152] Fu B, Giossi RL, Persson R, et al.. Active suspension in railway vehicles: a literature survey. Railw Eng Sci, 2020, 28(1): 3-35

[153] Park J-H, Koh H-I, Hur H-M, et al.. Design and analysis of an active steering bogie for urban trains. J Mech Sci Technol, 2010, 24(6): 1353-1362

[154] Umehara Y, Kamoshita S, Ishiguri K, et al.. Development of electro-hydraulic actuator with fail-safe function for steering system. QR RTRI, 2014, 55(3): 131-137

[155] Fu B, Bruni S. Fault-tolerant design and evaluation for a railway bogie active steering system. Veh Syst Dyn, 2022, 60(3): 810-834

[156] Song Y, Qi Y, Liu H, et al.. Research on the effect of electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA) on the curve negotiation performance and wheel wear of intercity EMUs. Veh Syst Dyn, 2025

[157] Aizpun M, Alonso A, Vinolas J. A new parameter identification methodology for the bogie rotational resistance test of a rail vehicle. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2016, 230(3): 879-890

[158] Wang K, Wen T, Sang H, et al.. The effect of the installation angle of a high speed train yaw damper on wheel wear. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2023, 237(9): 1152-1162

[159] Kojima T, Umehara Y, Hondo T. Development of active bogie steering system to improve curving performance. Q Rep RTRI, 2022, 63(2): 95-100

[160] British Standards Institution. Railway applications—ride comfort for passengers—measurement and evaluation. BS EN, 2024, 12299: 2024

[161] Allotta B, Pugi L, Colla V, et al.. Design and optimization of a semi-active suspension system for railway applications. J Mod Transp, 2011, 19(4): 223-232

[162] Jeniš F, Strecker Z, Michálek T, et al.. Ride comfort improvement of a railway vehicle by semi-active damping control–field tests. Veh Syst Dyn, 2025

[163] Sugahara Y, Takigami T, Sampei M. Suppressing vertical vibration in railway vehicles through primary suspension damping force control. J Syst Des Dyn, 2007, 1(2): 224-235

[164] Fu B, Bruni S. An examination of alternative schemes for active and semi-active control of vertical car-body vibration to improve ride comfort. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2022, 236(4): 386-405

[165] Fu B, Liu B, Di Gialleonardo E, et al.. Semi-active control of primary suspensions to improve ride quality in a high-speed railway vehicle. Veh Syst Dyn, 2023, 61(10): 2664-2688

[166] Pacchioni A, Goodall RM, Bruni S. Active suspension for a two-axle railway vehicle. Veh Syst Dyn, 2010, 48(sup1): 105-120

[167] Giossi RL, Shipsha A, Persson R, et al.. Towards the realization of an innovative rail vehicle—active ride comfort control. Control Eng Pract, 2022, 129 105346

[168] Colombo EF, Di Gialleonardo E, Facchinetti A, et al.. Active carbody roll control in railway vehicles using hydraulic actuation. Control Eng Pract, 2014, 31: 24-34

[169] Luo R, Liu C, Shi H. Dynamic simulation of a high-speed train with interconnected hydro-pneumatic secondary suspension. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2022, 236(5): 570-581

[170] Pan W, Sun J, Chen X, et al.. Research on dynamic interaction between seated human and railway vehicle focusing on carbody swaying. J Vib Control, 2026

[171] Orvnäs A, Stichel S, Persson R. Active lateral secondary suspension with H∞ control to improve ride comfort: simulations on a full-scale model. Veh Syst Dyn, 2011, 49(9): 1409-1422

[172] Dumitriu M, Stănică DI. Effect of the anti-yaw damper on carbody vertical vibration and ride comfort of railway vehicle. Appl Sci, 2020, 10(22): 8167

[173] Isacchi G, Corsi M, Ripamonti F. Ride comfort assessment of high-speed rail vehicles: influence of yaw dampers installation angle. Vib Proced, 2023, 50: 98-104

[174] Zhang H, Li R, Ling L, et al.. Dynamic analysis for the carbody chattering phenomenon induced by hunting instability of high-speed train. Nonlinear Dyn, 2025, 113(14): 17903-17932

[175] Huang C, Zeng J. Suppression of the flexible carbody resonance due to bogie instability by using a DVA suspended on the bogie frame. Veh Syst Dyn, 2022, 60(9): 3051-3070

[176] Tanifuji K, Sakanoue K, Kikko S. Modelling of aerodynamic force acting on high speed train in tunnel and a measure to improve the riding comfort utilising restriction between cars. Veh Syst Dyn, 2008, 46(sup1): 1065-1075

[177] Liu X, Thompson D, Squicciarini G, et al.. Measurements and modelling of dynamic stiffness of a railway vehicle primary suspension element and its use in a structure-borne noise transmission model. Appl Acoust, 2021, 182 108232

[178] Li F, Qin H, Ma X, et al.. In-situ testing method for high-frequency vibration transmissibility of railway vehicles. Measurement, 2025, 256 117993

[179] Thompson D. Vehicle interior noise. Railway Noise and Vibration, 2024, Amsterdam, Elsevier

[180] Zhang J, Xiao X, Sheng X, et al.. An acoustic design procedure for controlling interior noise of high-speed trains. Appl Acoust, 2020, 168 107419

[181] Li M, Zhu Z, Deng T, et al.. An investigation into high-speed train interior noise with operational transfer path analysis method. Railw Eng Sci, 2021, 29(1): 1-14

[182] Ström R (2014) Operational transfer path analysis of components of a high speed train bogie. Dissertation, Chalmers University of Technology

[183] Peng L, Han J, Nie J, et al.. Transfer path contribution to floor vibration of metro vehicles based on operational transfer path analysis method. Chin J Mech Eng, 2022, 35: 23

[184] Wang J, Ding X, Liu Z, et al.. An experimental study on abnormal vibration of metro trains caused by out-of-round wheels. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2023, 237(2): 224-231

[185] Zhang Y, Li L, Zhou J, et al.. Contributions separation prediction for multi-dimensional vibration transmission in the bogie system to metro interior noise. J Vib Control, 2025

[186] Dai L, Li Y, Chi M, et al.. Accelerated degradation test method and performance prediction with service mileage of the yaw damper in railway vehicles. Eng Fail Anal, 2024, 161 108285

[187] Hu Z, Song D, Zeng Y, et al.. Analysis of the service life of railway hydraulic dampers considering temperature and loading. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2021, 235(1): 3-11

[188] Zeng Y, Song D, Zhang W, et al.. Stochastic failure process of railway vehicle dampers and the effects on suspension and vehicle dynamics. Veh Syst Dyn, 2021, 59(5): 703-718

[189] Wang W, Yu D, Xu R. Prediction of the in-service performance of a railway hydraulic damper. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2017, 231(1): 19-32

[190] Gao H, Sun J, Shiju E, et al.. Cavitation induced hydraulic yaw damper failure and its effect on railway vehicle dynamic stability. Eng Fail Anal, 2024, 161 108318

[191] Mei TX, Goodall RM. Recent development in active steering of railway vehicles. Veh Syst Dyn, 2003, 39(6): 415-436

[192] Qazizadeh A, Stichel S, Persson R. Proposal for systematic studies of active suspension failures in rail vehicles. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2018, 232(1): 199-213

[193] British Standards Institution (2022) Railway applications—testing and simulation for the acceptance of running characteristics of railway vehicles—running behaviour and stationary tests. BS EN 14363:2016+A2:2022

[194] Mirzapour M, Mei TX, Jin X. Fault detection and isolation for an active wheelset control system. Veh Syst Dyn, 2014, 52(sup1): 157-171

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(52388102)

Rights & permissions

The Author(s)

Just Accepted

This article has successfully passed peer review and final editorial review, and will soon enter typesetting, proofreading and other publishing processes. The currently displayed version is the accepted final manuscript. The officially published version will be updated with format, DOI and citation information upon launch. We recommend that you pay attention to subsequent journal notifications and preferentially cite the officially published version. Thank you for your support and cooperation.