Experimental and numerical analysis of wheel–rail tribology under dry and contaminated conditions with oil, oil–water emulsion, and leaf debris

Abstract

The wear of wheels and rails has a significant impact on the dynamic performance and safety of railway systems. Reliable prediction models are essential for effective maintenance planning. This study examines the effect of surface contamination on the friction and wear behaviour of commonly used wheel and rail steels. Twin-disc rolling–sliding experiments were performed to assess the effects of creep ratio, contact pressure, and tangential speed on friction coefficient and wear. Samples were cut from the rail head and locomotive wheel tyre, in the form of rollers and shoes. Various creep ratios were obtained from roller-on-roller tests on rollers with different diameters. To obtain pure sliding, the tests were conducted on a rotating roller with a stationary shoe. Under dry roller–roller conditions, the friction coefficient stabilizes within the range μ ≈ 0.168–0.236, with typical values of approximately 0.19–0.20 at 10% slip and 120 N. In contrast, water–leaf contamination results in a substantial reduction in adhesion, yielding μ ≈ 0.05 and significant fluctuations attributed to intermittent third-body entrainment. Oil lubrication further reduces the friction coefficient to μ ≈ 0.029, while oil–water emulsion conditions produce similarly low values of μ ≈ 0.03, indicating a transition to mixed or hydrodynamic lubrication. The lowest friction level is recorded under pure rolling, where µ ≈ 0.0187. For roller–shoe contact under pure sliding conditions, the friction coefficient remains relatively high (μ ≈ 0.19–0.20), accompanied by severe wear. Wear volumes were calculated using a modified Archard model with weighting factors and compared to results from finite element analysis (FEA). The FEA model provided reliable wear predictions and reduced reliance on costly experimental testing. The strong agreement between FEA predictions and experimental data supports the use of this approach for consistent wear prediction and improved railway maintenance strategies.

Keywords

Wheel–rail contact / Wear / Friction / Rail contaminants / Creep ratio / FEA model

References

[1] Bărbînţă CI (2014) The influence of roughness and wear on the pressure distribution and stress state at the wheel–rail contact. Dissertation, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iaşi (in Romanian)

[2] Blanari I, Goanţă V, Alexandrov M, et al. . Influence of wear on the distribution of pressure and the state of tension at wheel-rail interface. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng, 2020, 997(1 012097

[3] Xu J, Wang P, Wang L, et al. . Effects of profile wear on wheel–rail contact conditions and dynamic interaction of vehicle and turnout. Adv Mech Eng, 2016, 8 1687814015623696

[4] Eadie D, Vidler B, Hooper N et al (2003) Top of Rail friction control: lateral force and rail wear reduction in a freight application. In: Proceedings of the International Heavy Haul Association, Fort Worth, Texas, USA, May 2003

[5] Eadie DT, Santoro M, Kalousek J. Railway noise and the effect of top of rail liquid friction modifiers: changes in sound and vibration spectral distributions in curves. Wear, 2005, 2587–8): 1148-1155

[6] Cotter J, Eadie D, Elvidge D et al (2003) Top of rail friction control: reductions in fuel and greenhouse gas emissions. In: Proceedings of the International Heavy Haul Association, vol. 7, Fort Worth, Texas, USA, May 2003

[7] Molyneux-Berry P, Davis C, Bevan A. The influence of wheel/rail contact conditions on the microstructure and hardness of railway wheels. Sci World J, 2014, 2014 209752

[8] Piotrowski J, Chollet H. Wheel–rail contact models for vehicle system dynamics including multi-point contact. Veh Syst Dyn, 2005, 43(6–7): 455-483

[9] Vo KD, Zhu HT, Tieu AK, et al. . FE method to predict damage formation on curved track for various worn status of wheel/rail profiles. Wear, 2015, 322–323: 61-75

[10] Soleimani H, Moavenian M. Tribological aspects of wheel–rail contact: a review of wear mechanisms and effective factors on rolling contact fatigue. Urban Rail Transit, 2017, 3(4): 227-237

[11] Pombo J, Ambrósio J, Silva M. A new wheel–rail contact model for railway dynamics. Veh Syst Dyn, 2007, 45(2): 165-189

[12] Hardwick C, Lewis R, Eadie DT (2012) Wheel and rail wear – understanding the effect of third body materials. In: Proceedings of CM2012 9th International Conference on Contact Mechanics and Wear of Rail/Wheel Systems, Chengdu, China, 26–30 August 2012

[13] Markov DP. Adhesion at friction and wear. Friction, 2022, 10(11): 1859-1878

[14] Eadie DT, Kalousek J, Chiddick KC. The role of high positive friction (HPF) modifier in the control of short pitch corrugations and related phenomena. Wear, 2002, 253(1–2): 185-192

[15] Rovira A, Roda A, Lewis R, et al. . Application of Fastsim with variable coefficient of friction using twin disc experimental measurements. Wear, 2012, 274–275: 109-126

[16] Piotrowski J. Kalker’s algorithm Fastsim solves tangential contact problems with slip-dependent friction and friction anisotropy. Veh Syst Dyn, 2010, 48(7): 869-889

[17] Kalousek J, Hou K, Magel E et al (2011) The benefits of friction management—a third body approach. In: Proceedings of the World Congress Conference of Railroad Research, Colorado Springs, USA, June 1996

[18] Stock R, Pippan R. RCF and wear in theory and practice—the influence of rail grade on wear and RCF. Wear, 2011, 271(1–2): 125-133

[19] Arias-Cuevas O, Li Z, Lewis R, et al. . Rolling–sliding laboratory tests of friction modifiers in dry and wet wheel–rail contacts. Wear, 2010, 268(3–4): 543-551

[20] Lewis R, Dwyer-Joyce RS. Wear at the wheel/rail interface when sanding is used to increase adhesion. Proc Inst Mech Eng F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2006, 220(1): 29-41

[21] Cann PM. The “leaves on the line” problem—a study of leaf residue film formation and lubricity under laboratory test conditions. Tribol Lett, 2006, 24(2): 151-158

[22] Olofsson U, Sundvall K. Influence of leaf, humidity and applied lubrication on friction in the wheel-rail contact: Pin-on-disc experiments. Proc Inst Mech Eng F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2004, 218(3): 235-242

[23] Beagley TM. The rheological properties of solid rail contaminants and their effect on wheel/rail adhesion. Proc Inst Mech Eng, 1976, 190(1): 419-428

[24] Fletcher DI, Beynon JH. Development of a machine for closely controlled rolling contact fatigue and wear testing. J Test Eval, 2000, 28(4): 267-275

[25] Li Z, Arias-Cuevas O, Lewis R, et al. . Rolling–sliding laboratory tests of friction modifiers in leaf contaminated wheel–rail contacts. Tribol Lett, 2009, 33(2): 97-109

[26] Ramalho A. Wear modelling in rail–wheel contact. Wear, 2015, 330–331: 524-532

[27] Ronasi H, Oldknow KD, Vander Marel J, et al. . Traction-creepage curve identification at the wheel/rail interface: a fast experimental approach. Wear, 2016, 366–367: 346-351

[28] Zhu Y, Chen X, Wang W, et al. . A study on iron oxides and surface roughness in dry and wet wheel–rail contacts. Wear, 2015, 328–329: 241-248

[29] Chen H, Ban T, Ishida M, et al. . Adhesion between rail/wheel under water lubricated contact. Wear, 2002, 253(1–2): 75-81

[30] Goto H, Amamoto Y. Effect of varying load on wear resistance of carbon steel under unlubricated conditions. Wear, 2003, 254(12): 1256-1266

[31] Tomberger C, Dietmaier P, Sextro W, et al. . Friction in wheel–rail contact: a model comprising interfacial fluids, surface roughness and temperature. Wear, 2011, 271(1–2): 2-12

[32] Chen H, Ishida M, Nakahara T. Analysis of adhesion under wet conditions for three-dimensional contact considering surface roughness. Wear, 2005, 258(7–8): 1209-1216

[33] Paleu CC, Munteanu C, Istrate B, et al. . Microstructural analysis and tribological behavior of AMDRY 1371 (Mo–NiCrFeBSiC) atmospheric plasma spray deposited thin coatings. Coatings, 2020, 10(12): 1186

[34] Khalladi A, Elleuch K. Tribological behavior of wheel–rail contact under different contaminants using pin-on-disk methodology. J Tribol, 2017, 139(1 011102

[35] Popovici RI (2010) Friction in wheel–rail contacts. Dissertation, University Library/University of Twente

[36] Yang Y, Wu B, Xiao G, et al. . Numerical investigation on wheel-rail adhesion under water-lubricated condition during braking. Ind Lubr Tribol, 2023, 755): 568-577

[37] Wu B, Xiao G, An B, et al. . Numerical study of wheel/rail dynamic interactions for high-speed rail vehicles under low adhesion conditions during traction. Eng Fail Anal, 2022, 137 106266

[38] Arias-Cuevas O, Li Z. Field investigations into the adhesion recovery in leaf-contaminated wheel–rail contacts with locomotive sanders. Proc Inst Mech Eng F J Rail Rapid Transit, 2011, 225(5): 443-456

[39] Omasta M, Machatka M, Smejkal D, et al. . Influence of sanding parameters on adhesion recovery in contaminated wheel–rail contact. Wear, 2015, 322–323: 218-225

[40] Lewis R, Trummer G, Six K, et al. . Leaves on the line: characterising leaf based low adhesion on railway rails. Tribol Int, 2023, 185 108529

[41] Chen H, Kimura S, Ikoma K, et al. . Evaluation test of tangential force coefficient under different types of fallen leaves. Wear, 2023, 532–533 205072

[42] Wang WJ, Zhang HF, Wang HY, et al. . Study on the adhesion behavior of wheel/rail under oil, water and sanding conditions. Wear, 2011, 271(9–10): 2693-2698

[43] International Organization for Standardization. ISO 6892-1:2019 metallic materials – tensile testing – Part 1: method of test at room temperature, 2019, Geneva, Switzerland, ISO

[44] European Committee for Standardization. EN 13674-1:2003 railway applications – track – rail – Part 1: Vignole railway rails 46 kg/m and above, 2003, Brussels, Belgium, CEN

[45] Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer. UIC 810-1 technical specification for the supply of rough rolled non-alloy steel tyres for tractive and trailing stock, 2003, Paris, France, UIC

[46] Intertechnology Inc (2016) Strain Indicator and Recorder. http://www.vishay-measurements.ca/instruments-model-p3-strain-indicator.htm. Accessed 15 March 2025

[47] Vishay Precision Group Inc (2016) Precision Strain Gages and Sensors, Databook, Document No. 11505. http://www.vishay-straingauge.com/pdf/strain/precision-strain-gages-sensors-1.pdf. Accessed 15 March 2025

[48] Vishay Precision Group Inc (2025) Micro-Measurements Product Catalog–015EH. https://micro-measurements.com/products. Accessed 15 March 2025

[49] Ametek Inc (2022) Form Talysurf Intra. Precision solutions for surface finish and contour measurement. https://pdf.directindustry.com/viewerCatalog/taylor-hobson/form-talysurf-intra/7159-132070.html#open Accessed 28 March 2025

[50] Jendel T. Prediction of wheel profile wear—comparisons with field measurements. Wear, 2002, 253(1–2): 89-99

[51] Enblom R, Berg M. Simulation of railway wheel profile development due to wear—influence of disc braking and contact environment. Wear, 2005, 258(7–8): 1055-1063

[52] De Arizon J, Verlinden O, Dehombreux P. Prediction of wheel wear in urban railway transport: comparison of existing models. Veh Syst Dyn, 2007, 45(9): 849-866

[53] Budynas RG, Nisbett JK. Shigley’s mechanical engineering design, 20119th ednNew York, McGraw-Hill

[54] Ansys (2025) Ansys Help Center. https://ansyshelp.ansys.com/public/. Accessed 11 July 2025

[55] Ishizaka K, Lewis SR, Lewis R. The low adhesion problem due to leaf contamination in the wheel/rail contact: bonding and low adhesion mechanisms. Wear, 2017, 378–379: 183-197

[56] Guidoum S, Merino P, Saulot A, et al. . Experimental study of the influence of the relative humidity of leaves and their link to adhesion losses in the wheel–rail contact. Mech Ind, 2022, 23: 23

[57] Kumar N, Radmehr A, Ahmadian M. Experimental evaluation of effect of leaves on railroad tracks in loss of braking. Machines, 2024, 12(5): 301

[58] Magel EE (2017) A survey of wheel/rail friction. Technical report DOT/FRA/ORD-17/21. Federal Railroad Administration, Office of Research, Development and Technology, Washington, DC, USA

[59] de Paula Pacheco PA, Magelli M, Lopes MV, et al. . The effectiveness of different wear indicators in quantifying wear on railway wheels of freight wagons. Rail Eng Sci, 2024, 32(3): 307-323

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)

Just Accepted

This article has successfully passed peer review and final editorial review, and will soon enter typesetting, proofreading and other publishing processes. The currently displayed version is the accepted final manuscript. The officially published version will be updated with format, DOI and citation information upon launch. We recommend that you pay attention to subsequent journal notifications and preferentially cite the officially published version. Thank you for your support and cooperation.